Objectives

The objectives of this experiment is to obtain the magnitude and phase response of active filters, to observe the effect of Q factor on cut-off
frequency, and to determine the effect of pole on both rate of roll-off and natural frequency
Results
t v
in
e sin 5 . 0 = ) sin( u e + = t V v
op out

pp out
pp in
v
v
j H
,
,
) ( = e e e j H dB j H ( log 20 ) ( ) ( =

i) First Order Low-Pass Filter
No Frequency (kHz)
pp in
V
,

pp out
V
,
) ( e j H ) ( e j H (dB)
u (degree)
1 0.1 1.0 1.00 1.00 0 174
2 0.2 1.0 0.99 0.99 -0.087 173
3 0.3 1.0 0.98 0.98 -0.175 169
4 0.4 1.0 0.97 0.97 -0.265 168
5 0.5 1.0 0.96 0.96 -0.355 166
6 0.6 1.0 0.93 0.93 -0.630 165
7 0.7 1.0 0.92 0.92 -0.724 162
8 0.8 1.0 0.91 0.91 -0.819 154
9 1.0 1.0 0.86 0.86 -1.310 153
10 1.5 1.0 0.74 0.74 -2.615 141
11 2.0 1.0 0.67 0.67 -3.479 132
12 3.0 1.0 0.48 0.48 -6.375 124
13 4.0 1.0 0.39 0.39 -8.179 115
14 5.0 1.0 0.37 0.37 -8.636 109
15 6.0 1.0 0.28 0.28 -11.057 104
16 7.0 1.0 0.24 0.24 -12.396 100
17 8.0 1.0 0.22 0.22 -13.152 99
18 10.0 1.0 0.17 0.17 -15.391 98

Table 1: Result for first-order low-pass filter

ii) Second Order Low-Pass Filter
No Frequency (kHz)
pp in
V
,

pp out
V
,
) ( e j H ) ( e j H (dB)
u (degree)
1 0.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 0
2 0.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 -17.4
3 0.3 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 -21.7
4 0.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 -34.6
5 0.5 1.0 0.99 0.99 -0.087 -39.6
6 0.6 1.0 0.96 0.96 -0.355 -47.1
7 0.7 1.0 0.92 0.92 -0.724 -60.8
8 0.8 1.0 0.86 0.86 -1.310 -66.5
9 1.0 1.0 0.75 0.75 -2.499 -86.4
10 1.5 1.0 0.43 0.43 -7.331 -116
11 2.0 1.0 0.27 0.27 -11.373 -135
12 3.0 1.0 0.13 0.13 -17.721 -152
13 4.0 1.0 0.08 0.08 -21.938 -160
14 5.0 1.0 0.06 0.06 -24.437 -164
15 6.0 1.0 0.05 0.05 -26.021 -169
16 7.0 1.0 0.04 0.04 -27.959 -172
17 8.0 1.0 0.03 0.03 -30.458 -173
18 10.0 1.0 0.02 0.02 -33.979 -179

Table 2: Result for second-order low-pass filter

iii) Second Order High-Pass Filter
No Frequency (kHz)
pp in
V
,

pp out
V
,
) ( e j H ) ( e j H (dB)
u (degree)
1 0.1 1.0 0.02 0.02 -34 180
2 0.2 1.0 0.04 0.04 -28 176
3 0.3 1.0 0.08 0.08 -22 171
4 0.4 1.0 0.14 0.14 -17.1 166
5 0.5 1.0 0.22 0.22 -13.2 156
6 0.6 1.0 0.30 0.30 -10.5 139
7 0.7 1.0 0.40 0.40 -7.96 129
8 0.8 1.0 0.50 0.50 -6.02 120
9 1.0 1.0 0.68 0.68 -3.35 96
10 1.5 1.0 0.90 0.90 -0.92 64
11 2.0 1.0 0.98 0.98 -0.18 49
12 3.0 1.0 1.00 1.00 0 30
13 4.0 1.0 1.00 1.00 0 23
14 5.0 1.0 1.00 1.00 0 18
15 6.0 1.0 1.00 1.00 0 15
16 7.0 1.0 1.00 1.00 0 14
17 8.0 1.0 1.00 1.00 0 10
18 10.0 1.0 1.00 1.00 0 5

Table 3: Result for second order high-pass filter

Bode plot for the three filters are plotted on semi graph paper, as attached together this report.

Discussion
From the result taken from experiment, we can draw Bode plot to find cut-off frequency, slope of roll-off, phase angle at cut-off
frequency and the range of phase angles for the filters.

a) First-Order Low-Pass Filter
At low frequencies, voltage gain is constant at 0 dB. But, when frequency reaches kHz 2 . 0 , the gain starts to decrease. From Graph 1.5, we
found that:

i. dB j H 0 ) 0 ( log 20
10
=
ii. Cut-off frequency, kHz f
c
65 . 1 =
iii. Slope of roll-off decade dB
decade
/ 8 . 17
) 15 ( 8 . 2
=

=
iv. Phase angle at cut-off, =138
c
u
v. Range of phase angle s s = 174 98 u

But, these values are different from the calculation based on the theory given. The calculated values are:
i. dB j H 0 ) 0 ( log 20
10
=
ii. Cut-off frequency, kHz
k C R
f
c
592 . 1
) 01 . 0 )( 10 ( 2
1
2
1
2
= = =
t t

iii. Slope of roll-off decade dB/ 20 =
iv. Phase angle at cut-off, =135
c
u
v. Range of phase angle s s = 180 90 u

b) Second-Order Low-Pass Filter
At low frequencies, voltage gain is constant at 0 dB. But, when frequency reaches kHz 5 . 0 , the gain starts to decrease. From Graph 1.6, we
found that:

i. dB j H 0 ) 0 ( log 20
10
=
ii. Cut-off frequency, kHz f
c
95 . 0 =
iii. Slope of roll-off decade dB
decade
/ 35
) 35 ( 0
=

=
iv. Phase angle at cut-off, = 86
c
u
v. Range of phase angle s s = 0 179 u

But, these values are different from the calculation based on the theory given. The calculated values are:

i. dB j H 0 ) 0 ( log 20
10
=
ii. Cut-off frequency, kHz
k RC
f
c
125 . 1
) 01 . 0 )( 10 ( 2
707 . 0
2
707 . 0
= = =
t t

iii. Slope of roll-off decade dB/ 40 =
iv. Phase angle at cut-off,
c
u
F C 022 . 0
1
= F C 01 . 0
2
= O = k R 10
1
O = k R 10
2

7416 . 0
) (
2 1 2
2 1 2 1
=
+
=
R R C
R R C C
Q
n
f
f
c
=
0
09503 . 1
2
4 2
1
2
1
2
2 2
=
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
Q Q
n
0464 . 1 09503 . 1
0
= =
f
f
c

~ =

|
|
.
|

\
|

=

94 85 . 93
1
tan 180
2
0
0 1
f
f
Q
f
f
c
c
c
u
v. Range of phase angle s s = 0 180 u

c) Second-Order High-Pass Filter
From Graph 1.7, we found that:

i. dB j H 0 ) ( log 20
10
=
ii. Cut-off frequency, kHz f
c
12 . 1 =
iii. Slope of roll-off decade dB
decade
/ 40
) 41 ( 1
=

=
iv. Phase angle at cut-off, = 94
c
u
v. Range of phase angle s s = 180 5 u

But, these values are different from the calculation based on the theory given. The calculated values are:

i. dB j H 0 ) 68 ( log 20
10
=
ii. Cut-off frequency, kHz
k RC
f
c
125 . 1
) 01 . 0 )( 10 ( 2
707 . 0
2
707 . 0
= = =
t t

iii. Slope of roll-off decade dB/ 40 =
iv. Phase angle at cut-off,
c
u
F C 01 . 0
1
= F C 01 . 0
2
= O = k R 10
1
O = k R 20
2

7071 . 0
) (
2 1 1
2 1 2 1
=
+
=
C C R
R R C C
Q
n
f
f
c
=
0
00 . 1
2
4 2
1
2
1
2
2 2
=
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
Q Q
n
00 . 1 00 . 1
0
= =
f
f
c

=

|
|
.
|

\
|

=

90
1
tan 180
2
0
0 1
f
f
Q
f
f
c
c
c
u
v. Range of phase angle s s = 180 0 u


Based on experiment done, we find that the voltage gain at low frequencies for low-pass filters and voltage gain at high frequencies
for high-pass filter are consistent with the preliminary calculations. But, there were slightly different at roll-off slope, phase angle, cut-off
frequency and range of phase angle.
The discrepancy can be expressed as percentage, for example the discrepancy of roll-off slope for first order low-pass filter is:
Experiment value: -17.8 dB
Theoretical value: -20.0 dB
Error % 11 % 100
20
) 20 ( 8 . 17
=

=
The discrepancies may be due to human error. For example, for tuning the frequency, we are using signal generator that is
analogically tuning. The signal generator is very an accurate device, but since we are human, we cant afford to get an exact frequency needed.
Since frequency is a very important fundamental parameter in this experiment, any inpercision in frequency would cause the reading of output
voltage and phase angle to become inaccurate.
Furthermore, we drew bode plot manually, caused inaccuracy at the curve. This may be giving an error in measuring cut-off
frequency, slope and phase angle. Here are the suggestions for the experiment so that the results more accurate:
i. Using digitally tuned signal generator to replace the analogically tuned signal generator.
ii. The error in drawing bode plot can be prevent by using Dynamic Signal Analyzer. This device can display Bode plot to get an
exact value of data needed.
iii. Repeatability. Repeat the important steps and data taken so that we can minimize error due to human error.

From this experiment, we also found that the slopes of roll-off are different for first order and second order filter. First order filter
gives slope of roll-off decade dB/ 20 ~ but second order filter gives slope of roll-off decade dB/ 40 ~ . Furthermore, the range of
phase angle of first order filter is 90 whereas the range of phase angle for second order filter is 180 . The different is due to number of
poles. First order filter has one pole but second order filter have two poles.
An ideal filter has an infinite slope of roll-off. Any filter with slope of roll-off approaching infinity is good. In this case, the second
order filter is better than first order filter. The results we have are consistent with the theory.


Conclusion
It was verified that active filter passes electric signals at certain frequency ranges while preventing the passage of others. A higher
order filter is needed to transmit exact frequency ranges of electric signals and preventing other signals. A higher order filter has a very high
slope of roll-off and wide phase angle range. The experiment results always give a small error. The discrepancies may be due to human error.