Subject : the word or words denoting what we speak about.

Predicate : the word or words by -w-hich we say something about the thing denoted by the subject. Clause : a sentence that is part of a larger sentence. Nominative or its equivalent: the noun or noun equivalent that fixes the number and person of the Finite verb. Noun-clause : a clause that does the work of a noun. Enlargement of Nominative : an adjective or adjective-equivalent that enlarges the meaning of the Nominative. Adjective-clause : a clause that does the work of an adjective. Finite verb : any part of a verb that is limited to number and person. Non-finite parts of a verb : those parts of a verb that are not limited to number or person, viz. the Infinitive, the Participle, and the Gerund. Transitive verb : one that requires an object. Intransitive verb : one that does not require an object. Factitive verb : a Transitive verb that requires both a complement and an object. Copulative verb : an Intransitive verb that requires a complement. Extension of Finite verb : an adverb or adverb-equivalent that extends the meaning of a Finite verb. Adverb-clause : a clause that does the work of an adverb. Scheme of Analysis.Sentences are analysed according to the following scheme, the details of which have been already explained in The new master soon put the class into good order. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Evil communications corrupt good manners. AVithout any necessity, he asked me a rude question.

Parts of Speech : the different kinds of words that serve different purposes in a sentence. Noun : a word used for naming anything. The howling of the ivolf filled the flock with terror. Here howling is the name of an action ; wolf, of an animal ;fioch, of a multitude ; terror, of a feeling. So howling, wolf,Jlock,terror are all nouns. Pronoun : a word used instead of a noun. I told James that the snake loliieh you saw in the garden would dohim no harm, if he let it go its oivn way. Here I is used for the speaker ; you for the person spoken to ; him and he for " James " ; which, it, and its own for " snake." So all these words are pronouns.

Adjective : a word that enlarges the meaning and narrows the application of a noun.
this house," or " that house," or " fourth house." Enlargement of meaning is necessarily accompanied by a narrowing of application. This is a vital point. Thus the noun "house," so long as its meaning remains unenlarged, that is, so long as no adjective is added to it, can be applied to an almost countless number of things called by the general name of "house." But if I add to the noun the adjective "fourth," the noun so enlarged can be applied to onlj'' one house, viz. to that house which stands fourth ina certain row or terrace. Observe that when we enlarge the meaning of "house " by adding "fourth," we do not alter the meaning of "house." "Fourth house " means all that " house " means, and more besides.

Verb : a word used for saying something about something else. A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being. The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must have a verb. Preposition : a word used for showing in what relation one thing stands to another thing.
I put my hand on the table. In the preposition on shows the relation between the thing denoted by table and the action denoted by " put." The hand might be held above the table, or under it, or on it. It is the preposition which defines the relation.

Conjunction : a word used for showing in what relation one notion stands to another notion, or one thought to another thought.
In {a) the notion of humility expressed by humble-minded is connected (in the sense of addition) with the notion of contentment expressed by contented. The one notion is simply added to the other. The conjunction used for this purpose is and.

Adverb : a word that extends the meaning and narrows the application of any part of speech except a noun or pronoun. Take such sentences as the following :
{a) With verb.I inuch admire his industry. {h) With adjective.He is deservedly successful. (c) With preposition.The body floated partly above and partly below the water. {d) With conjunction.He was despised, merely because he was poor. {e) With other adverb.He writes remarkably well. In (a) the verb " admire " is qualified by the adverb " much." In (b) the adjective " successful "' is qualified by the adverb " deservedly." In (c) the preposition " above " is qualified by the adverb " partly " ; and the preposition " below " by the same adverb. In {d) the conjunction " because " is qualified by the adverb " merely." In {e) the adverb " well " is qualified by the adverb " remarkably."

Interjection : a word thrown into a sentence to express some feeling of the mind, but forming no part of the construction of the sentence.
My son, alas ! died yesterday.

Double Part of Speech : a word in which the characters of two parts of speech are combined. Phrase : a combination of words in which no Finite verb is either expressed or understood.

Nouns classified.Nouns are of five different kinds : Proper (one thing at a time) Common (any number of things) Collective(group of things) Material (what a thing is made of)

1. Concrete

2. Abstract (quality, state, or action) .

A Proper Noun is a name for one particular thing as distinct from every other ; as James (a person), Kenilworth (a book), Paris (a city), France (a country). Note."Proper"means "own." Thus a Proper name is "own name." It cannot be given to more than one thing at a time. A Common Noun denotes no one thing in particular, but is common to any number of things of the same kind; as " man," " book," " country." Thus, man does not point out any particular man, such as James, but can be used for any and every man. Note 1." Common " means "shared by several." Things of the same kind, i.e. possessing some property in common, have an equal right to be called by the same name. Note 2.A Proper noun becomes a Common noun, when it is used in a descriptive or general sense : The Czar of Russia. The Pharaohs of Egypt. He is the Newton (greatest astronomer) of the century. A Collective Noun is a name for a group of similar individuals, the group being one complete whole. For instance, there may be many sheep in a field, but only one flock. Here " sheep " is a Common noun, because it may stand for any and every sheep ; but "flock " is a Collective noun, because it stands for all the sheep at once, and not for any one sheep taken separately. A noun of Material is a name for some particular kind of matter or substance. Thus " sheep " is a Common noun ; but " mutton " (or the flesh of sheep) is a Material noun. Note.The same word can be a Material noun or a Common noun according to the sense : Fish live in water {Com.). Fish is good for food (Mat.). An Abstract Noun denotes some quality, state, or action, apart from anything possessing the quality, etc. QualityCleverness, height, humility, roguery, colour. StatePoverty, manhood, bondage, pleasure, youth. ActionLaughter, movement, flight, choice, revenge. The four kinds of nouns first named are all Concrete ; i.e. they denote ohjects of sense, viz. what can be seen, heard, touched, smelt, or tasted, or what can be perceived by the muscular sense, as weight, extension, etc. But an abstract noun relates to qualities, states, etc., which cannot be seen or touched, etc., and which are thought of apart from any object of sense. For example : We know that a stone is hard. "We also know that iron is hard. We also know that a brick is hard. We can therefore speak of hardness apart from stone, or iron, or brick, or any other object having the same quality. " Abstract " means "drawn off" (abstracted in thought) from the object. Hence hardness is an abstract noun ; while stone or hrick or iron is a concrete noun. Adjective classifiedThere are different types of adjectives in the English language: Descriptive : showing of what quality or in what state a thing is. colour, size, smell,brave

Quantitative : showing how much of a thing is meant. more, all, some, half, more than enough Numeral : showing how many things or in what order. six, one hundred and one Demonstrative : showing which or what thing is meant. this, that, those, these, A, An Interrogative : asking which or what thing is meant. which, whose, what Distributive : showing that things are taken separately or in separate lots. Only 4 Adjectives - Each, Every, Either, Neither Possessive: my, his, their, your Note - The articles a, an, and the and the possessives my, our, your, and their are also adjectives. Pronoun classified There are four different kinds of Pronouns : Personal Pronoun These pronouns refer to people and so are called Personal Pronouns. However, the pronoun it is included in personal pronouns although it does not usually refer to a person. What then are personal pronouns? Personal pronouns are best explained by the table below: Singular First Person I Second Person Third Person You He She It Me You Him Her It Plural We You They They They Us You Them Them Them

Subject Object Subject Object

In the above table, Personal Pronouns stand for three persons: First Person; Second Person; Third Person. There are two types of Personal Pronouns: (1) those used as subjects; (2) those used as objects.

The Personal Pronoun must be of the same Number, Gender and Person as the Noun for which it represents.

If the Noun is in the Singular Number, the Pronoun also must be in the Singular Number. EXAMPLE: The boy is playing with his kite. He has a red kite. EXAMPLE: The boys are playing with their kites. They have kites of various colours.

If the Noun is in the Feminine Gender, the Pronoun too must be in the Feminine Gender.

EXAMPLE: The girl is playing with her dog. She has a small dog. EXAMPLE: John's sister likes to eat pizza. She eats it almost every day. EXAMPLE: Jill has a boyfriend. He loves her very much. 2. Reflexive Pronouns

We use the Reflexive Pronoun when the action of the doer goes back to himself so that the Subject of the sentence is the same person as the object. EXAMPLE: He has hurt himself. Pronouns like 'himself' are called Reflexive Pronouns. They always end in '-self or -selves'. Reflexive Pronouns First Person Second Person Singular I : Myself You : Yourself He : Himself Third Person She : Herself It : Itself Plural We : Ourselves You : Yourself They : Themselves They : Themselves They : Themselves

The words in bold type can be used to make the action of a verb refer back to the subject. They are called reflexive pronouns. 3. Relative Pronouns Relative Pronouns take the place of Nouns or Pronouns; they are used to join two sentences about the same person or thing. EXAMPLE: I know the man who lives next door. Who refers to the noun 'man' which is just before it. Who is called a Relative Pronoun. It is placed at the beginning of the clause 'who lives next door'. This clause tells us more about the man. It is an adjective clause. A Relative Pronoun is therefore used to begin an adjective clause, which modifies Ihe noun that precedes it. Examples of relative pronouns: who, which, that, whom and whose. 'Who', 'whom' and 'whose' are used for people; 'which' and 'that' for animals or things; 'whom' is only used as the object of a sentence; and 'whose' is used as a possessive.

We use who to join two sentences.

EXAMPLE: "The man is an artist. He drew that picture." "The man who drew that picture is an artist."

We use whose to show possession or relationship.

EXAMPLE: "That is my uncle whose son is my cousin."

We use which or that in almost the same way as we use who but it refers to things, not human beings. There is one other difference in the way we use who and which. After who we put a verb. After which we can put a verb, a pronoun or a noun.

EXAMPLE: That is the camera which costs fifty dollars. (verb comes after 'which')

EXAMPLE: That is the camera which he bought. (pronoun comes after 'which') EXAMPLE: That is the camera which John likes. (noun comes after 'which')

We use whom to make a statement about human beings. It is used in place of who (a) when it is the object of a verb or (b) when it comes after a preposition.

EXAMPLE: (a) The man whom they caught was sent to prison. EXAMPLE: (b) The man to whom you should speak is my uncle. 4. Possessive Pronouns Possessive Pronouns are used to indicate ownership. They can be used without a Noun. EXAMPLE: Take all those that are yours and don't touch anything that are mine. (Pronouns 'yours' and 'mine' are used without Nouns.)

EXAMPLE: Don't borrow the books that are hers; read those that are ours. (Pronouns 'hers' and 'ours' are used without Nouns.) The Possessive Case Singular First Person Second Person Mine Yours His Third Person Hers Its 5. Demonstrative Pronouns The Demonstrative Pronoun is used to point out a thing or a person. Demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. However, one has to exercise care when using demonstrative pronouns. The words this and that when used alone, are pronouns; when used with Nouns they are Adjectives. EXAMPLE: This is what I heard from him. (Pronoun) EXAMPLE: This car is still new. (Adjective, used before the Noun, car) EXAMPLE: That is not something I like. (Pronoun) EXAMPLE: That girl does look familiar. (Adjective, used before the Noun, girl) We can replace that with the one. EXAMPLE: Where is the bill that I handed to you this morning? EXAMPLE: Where is the bill, the one I handed to you this morning? Verb classified - There are four different kinds of Verbs : Plural Ours Yours Theirs Theirs Theirs

A transitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like kick, want, paint, write, eat, clean, etc. Second, it must have a direct object, something or someone who receives the action of the verb. Here are some examples of transitive verbs:

Sylvia kicked Juan under the table.

Kicked = transitive verb; Juan = direct object.

Joshua wants a smile from Leodine, his beautiful but serious lab partner.

Wants = transitive verb; smile = direct object.

An intransitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like arrive, go, lie, sneeze, sit, die, etc. Second, unlike a transitive verb, it will not have a direct object receiving the action. Here are some examples of intransitive verbs:
Huffing and puffing, we arrived at the classroom door with only seven seconds to spare.

Arrived = intransitive verb.

James went to the campus cafe for a steaming bowl of squid eyeball stew.

Went = intransitive verb. Linking verbs do not express action. Instead, they connect the subject of the verb to additional information about the subject. Look at the examples below:
Keila is a shopaholic.

Ising isn't something that Keila can do. Is connects the subject, Keila, to additional information about her, that she will soon have a huge credit card bill to pay.
During the afternoon, my cats are content to nap on the couch.

Areing isn't something that cats can do. Are is connecting the subject, cats, to something said about them, that they enjoy sleeping on the furniture.

An Auxiliary verb is one which (a) helps to form a tense, or a mood, of some Principal verb, and (6) forgoes its own signification as a Principal verb(Principal verb = transitive or intransitive verbs) for that purpose :

 A merchant buys that he may sell. Here may is not used either in its early sense of "power" or in its present sense of " permission." It helps to form a subjunctive. I have come from home to-day. Here have forgoes its proper signification" possession," and helps the verb "come" to form a Present Perfect tense. The Auxiliary verbs make up a very small class : have, he, shall, will, may, doonly six, all told. But their fewness is compensated by their usefulness ; for no Transitive or Intransitive verb can be conjugated without them, except in two tenses, the Present and Past Indefinite.

Below are the auxiliary verbs. You can conjugate be, do, and have; the modal auxiliaries, however, never change form.

Be

Do

Have

am is are was were

does do did

has have had having

being been

Modal Auxiliaries [Never Change Form]

can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would

Note 1. Have, be are always followed by Participles. The other Auxiliaries are always followed by Infinitives.^ ^ The Infinitive that follows all the Auxiliaries except be and have might he parsed (if we wish to parse it separately) as the object to the Auxiliary verb going before: thus in "I shall go," go is object to the May {} cuAP. VI VERBS 45 Note 2.Auxiliary verbs help not only Principal verbs, but one another. *' I shall have been going " ; here three Auxiliaries combine to form a single tense. Shall is followed by an Infinitive have ; have is followed by a Participle been. The last Auxiliary " been " is then followed, as per rule in Note 1, by a Participle, "going." Note 3. Can, ought, and must, though Defective, are Principal verbs. Let is also a Principal verb. They are not Auxiliary {a) because they do not help to form any tense, mood, or voice ; and (6) because they do not discard their meanings as Notional verbs for auxiliary purposes. The Infinitive that follows is their object, as in the case of shall, will, may, do. 1. Active and Passive Voice An idea can be expressed in two different ways. We can do it by using a verb to indicate whether the subject performs an action (active voice) or receives the action (passive voice). Active voice: The verb is in the active voice when the subject does the action.

EXAMPLE: A cat ate the fish. (Subject: cat / Verb: ate / Object: fish) Here, the doer of the action is a cat and the verb "ate" is in the active voice. The object comes after the verb. Passive voice: When action is done to the subject, the verb is in the passive voice. The previous object (fish) is now used as the subject. EXAMPLE: The fish was eaten by a cat. (Verb: eaten / Subject: fish) Here, action is done to the subject and the verb "was eaten" is in the passive voice. The subject comes before the verb. In changing a sentence, as above, from active voice to one in the passive voice, we make the object of the active voice sentence the subject of the passive voice sentence. The verb used in a passive voice sentence is formed by adding the past participle to "to be" (am, is, are, was, were, has been, have been, will be, etc.) Passive verbs have the same tenses (simple present tense, present continuous tense, present perfect tense, etc.) as active verbs. Only verbs which take on an object can be changed to the passive. (Example: He runs away. This sentence has no object, so it's not possible to turn it into a passive sentence.)

FORMS of Verb
1) present participle
The present participle is often used when we want to express an active action. In English we add -ing to the infinitive of the verb.

2) past participle
The present participle is often used when we want to express a passive action. In English we add -ed to the infinitive of regular verbs

FORMS OF THE VERB PRESENT PRESENT TENSE PARTICIPLE

PAST TENSE

PAST PARTICIPLE

arise awake bear beat become begin bend bid bind bite bleed blow break

arising awaking bearing beating becoming beginning bending bidding binding biting bleeding blowing breaking

arose awoke bore beat became began bent bid,bade bound bit bled blew broke

arisen awoken born,borne beaten become begun bent bid,bade bound bitten bled blown broken

breed bring build burn burst buy cast catch choose cling come cost creep cut deal dig do draw dream drink drive dwell eat fall feed feel fight find flee fling flow fly forbid forecast forget forgive freeze get give go grab grind grow hang

breeding bringing building burning bursting buying casting catching choosing clinging coming costing creeping cutting dealing digging doing drawing dreaming drinking driving dwelling eating falling feeding feeling fighting finding fleeing flinging flowing flying forbidding forecasting forgetting forgiving freezing getting giving going grabbing grinding growing hanging

bred brought built burned,burnt burst bought cast caught chose clung came cost crept cut dealt dug did drew dreamed,dreamt drank drove dwelt ate fell fed felt fought found fled flung flowed flew forbade forecast,forecasted forgot forgave froze got gave went grabbed ground grew hung

bred brought built burned,burnt burst bought cast caught chosen clung come cost crept cut dealt dug done drawn dreamed,dreamt drunk driven dwelt eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flung flowed flown forbidden forecast,forecasted forgotten forgiven frozen got given gone grabbed ground grown hung

hang (kill) have hear hide hit hold hurt keep kneel knit know lay lead lean leap learn leave lend let lie light lose make mean meet pay put read ride ring rise run saw say see sell send set sew shake shine shoot show shrink

hanging having hearing hiding hitting holding hurting keeping kneeling knitting knowing laying leading leaning leaping learning leaving lending letting lying lighting losing making meaning meeting paying putting reading riding ringing rising running sawing saying seeing selling sending setting sewing shaking shining shooting showing shrinking

hanged had heard hid hit held hurt kept knelt knitted knew laid led leaned,leant leapt learned,learnt left lent let lay lighted,lit lost made meant met paid put read rode rang rose ran sawed said saw sold sent set sewed shook shone shot showed shrank

hanged had heard hidden hit held hurt kept knelt knitted known laid led lean,leant leapt learned,learnt left lent let lain lighted,lit lost made meant met paid put read ridden rung risen run sawn said seen sold sent set sewn shaken shone shot shown shrunk

shut sing sink sit sleep slide smell sow speak speed spell spend spill spin spit split spoil spread spring stand steal stick sting strike swear sweep swell swim swing take teach tear tell think throw wake wear win wind write

shutting singing sinking sitting sleeping sliding smelling sowing speaking speeding spelling spending spilling spinning spitting splitting spoiling spreading springing standing stealing sticking stinging striking swearing sweeping swelling swimming swinging taking teaching tearing telling thinking throwing waking wearing winning winding writing

shut sang sank sat slept slid smelled,smelt sowed spoke speeded,sped spelled,spelt spent spilled,spilt spun spat split spoiled,spoilt spread sprang stood stole stuck stung struck swore swept swelled swam swung took taught tore told thought threw woke wore won wound wrote

shut sung sunk sat slept slid smelled,smelt sown spoken speeded,sped spelled,spelt spent spilled,spilt spun spat split spoiled,spoilt spread sprung stood stolen stuck stung struck sworn swept swollen swum swung taken taught torn told thought thrown woken,waked worn won wound written

TENSES

To express the different degrees of completeness there are four different forms to each tense : I. Indefinite ; which denotes Present, Past, or Future time in its simplest form ; as, " I see," " I saw," " I shall see." II. Continuous ; which denotes that the event (in Present, Past, or Future time) is still continuing, and is not yet completed; as, " I am seeing," " I was seeing," " I shall be seeing." Note.This tense is sometimes called the Imperfect, because it denotes an event which is imperfect or not completed. III. Perfect ; which denotes that the event (in Present, Past, or Future time) is in a completed or jperfect state ; as, " I have seen," " I had seen," " I shall have seen." IV. Perfect Continuous ; which combines the meanings of the two preceding forms ; as, " I have been seeing," " I had been seeing," " I shall have been seeing."

Simple Tenses
The simple tenses can be thought of as referring to events that are complete wholes. No further development is anticipated.

Simple Past
The past tense form of the Verb Structures

Simple Present

Simple Future

The present tense form of the 1. will + the simple form of verb the verb

2. BE + going to + the simple form of the verb 1. an action or situation that began and ended in the past 1. a future scheduled event (with a future time expression) 1. an action or condition that is expected to occur at some time or over a period of time in the future

2. an action or situation that existed usually, always, or habitually in the past

2. an action or situation that exists usually, always, or habitually

2. an event or situation that is expected to exist usually, always, or habitually in the future

3. a truth or fact 3. in complex sentences: an untrue condition (subordinate clause), combined with a would result (main clause) Uses

3. in complex sentences: the result (main clause), combined with a condition or time related action (subordinate clause)

4. in complex sentences: a condition or timerelated action (subordinate clause), combined with a future time result (main clause)

1. The teacher assigned two problems last week.

1. An assignment is due next Thursday.

1. The teacher will assign more problems next week.

2. The teacher assigned problems regularly. Examples

2. The teacher assigns problems every day.

2. This class is going to be challenging.

3. If you did the work, you would understand more.

3. There are twenty-four hours in a day.

3. If/before I hand in my work, I will check it.

4. If/After I finish the problems, I will hand them in.

Progressive Tenses
The progressive tenses can be thought of as referring to events or actions that are imperfect. They are in process or incomplete, and there exists the possibility of further development or change.

Past Progressive
a past tense form of BE (was/were) + a present participle3 Structures

Present Progressive
a present tense form of BE (is/are) + a present participle

Future Progressive
1. will be + a present participle

2. BE (is/are) going to + a present participle

1. an action/ condition already in progress at a certain time or occurrence in the past 2. a repeated action in the past Uses

1. an action/condition that is in progress now

1. an action/condition that will be in progress at a certain point in time or when another event occurs in the future

2. an action in the extended present that will eventually end

2. an action that will continue for a length of time in the future

3. a temporary situation

4. a repeated action

1. The teacher was assigning problems when the bell rang.

1. The teacher is assigning problems right now.

1. The teacher will be assigning problems at the end of class.

2. I was studying all last week. Examples

2. I am studying physics this semester. 3. I am struggling with the homework problems.

2. The teacher is going to be assigning work all semester.

4. My physics teacher is assigning difficult problems.

Perfect Tenses
The perfect tenses are used to refer back in time to prior events or time periods. They generally refer to actions that began sometime in the previous time frame and continue up to or into the subsequent one.

Past Perfect
had + a past participle4 Structures

Present Perfect
have/has + a past participle

Future Perfect
1. will have + a past participle

2. BE (is/are)+ going to have + past participle

1. an event or condition that occurred before another event or time in the past

1. an event or situation that began before now and continues into the present

1. a future action or condition that will be completed before another event or time in the future

2. in complex sentences, an untrue condition (subordinate clause)

2. a prior action that has current relevance

3. a very recently completed action Uses

4. an action that occurred over a prior time period and is completed at the moment of speaking.

5. in complex sentences: a time related event or condition (subordinate clause)

1. She had assigned several problems before the class ended.

2. The teacher has assigned this chapter already.

By next November, I will have received my promotion. You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

2. If I had studied more, I would have earned an A. Examples

3. I have just finished tomorrows homework.

4. I have studied the course material for three hours.

5. When I have finished todays problems, I will be able to relax.

Perfect Progressive Tenses

The perfect progressive tenses combine perfect and progressive meanings. They refer back in time to prior events and time periods and they have a sense of incompleteness.

Past Perfect Progressive

had + been + a present participle Structures

Present Perfect Progressive

have/has + been + a present participle

Future Perfect Progressive

1. will have + been + a Present participle 2. BE (is/are)+ going to have + been + present participle

1. an action or habitual action taking place over a period of time in the past, prior to some other event or time. Uses

1. a situation, habit or 1. an ongoing or habitual action that began in the action that is taking place past and continues up to in the present and will the present (and contin- ue into the future possibly into the future) until or into a specific time. describes a future, ongoing action that will occur before some specified future time

2. in complex sentences: a past action in progress (main clause) that was interrupted by a more recent past action

1. The teacher had been assigning five problems a day prior to midterms.

1. The teacher has been meeting with students in her office every day.

1. By the time you get here, I will have been studying for the final for eight hours.

Examples

2. The teacher had been planning to have an inclass exam, but she had a take-home exam instead.