Measurements and Simulations of Temperature and Deformation Fields in Transient Metal Cutting

Yogesh K. Potdar Alan T. Zehnder

Department of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853

Advanced nite element software makes it possible to perform accurate simulations of orthogonal metal cutting provided all input parameters such as material properties, friction and material separation criteria are known. In principle, such properties can be determined by performing a series of cutting experiments and mechanical property tests, and then iterating the nite element simulations until acceptable agreement is reached. Cutting measurements have generally included only cutting forces and tool-chip temperatures. We hypothesize that by closely coupling simulations to conventional cutting force measurements and with ne scale spatial and temporal experimental measurements of temperature and strain elds, questions related to the choice of parameters in nite element simulations can be resolved. As a step towards that resolution a method for high resolution experimental measurements of temperature and strain elds is presented here. Temperatures of the workpiece and chip are measured during transient metal cutting over areas of 27 27 m and time scales of 200 ns by using infrared detectors. Three different materials, 1018CR steel, Al6061-T6 and Ti-6Al-4V are tested. A grid method is used to measure deformations in steel with a spatial resolution of 50 m. DOI: 10.1115/1.1596571

Introduction
Metal cutting is one of the most important manufacturing technologies today. Because of the highly nonlinear nature of metal cutting and the complex coupling between deformation and temperature elds, a complete understanding of the mechanics of metal cutting is still lacking and is thus the topic of a great deal of current research. Successful modeling of metal cutting is essential to develop optimal cutting processes. A very large body of research has been performed related to metal cutting mechanics 1,2 , starting from two-dimensional analytical models 3,4 up to the present emphasis on complex nite element simulations. Since the early work of Usui and Shirakashi 5 , considerable progress has been made in nite element FE modeling of metal cutting. Strenkowski and Moon 6 , Lin and Lin 7 , Xie et al. 8 and Marusich and Ortiz 9 , among others, have developed custom codes to model metal cutting. Others like Shet and Deng 10,11 and Lei et al. 12 used general purpose codes to simulate metal cutting. Various aspects of the physics of cutting have been studied. For example, residual stresses in cutting were studied by Shih et al. 13,14 . Obikawa et al. 15,16,17 , El Hossainy et al. 18 , Warnecke 19 and Mamalis et al. 20 studied chip formation using FE simulations. Yen et al. 21 and Li et al. 22 used FE simulations to study tool wear. In performing any FE study of metal cutting, one is faced with a large number of input parameters. These include the material model, which must include large deformation, high strain rate and high temperature effects, the tool-chip friction model, which could be temperature, sliding speed and pressure dependent and the separation criterion. In principle, such properties can be determined by performing a series of cutting experiments and mechanical property tests, and then iterating parameters in the nite element simulations until acceptable agreement is reached. However, cutting measurements have generally included only cutting forces and tool-chip temperatures. It is hypothesized that by closely coupling simulation to ne spatial and temporal scale experimental
Contributed by the Manufacturing Engineering Division for publication in the JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. Manuscript received December 2001; Revised January 2003. Associate Editor: A. Shih.

measurements of temperature and strain elds, along with macro scale measurements such as cutting forces, questions related to the choice of parameters needed in nite element simulations of cutting can be resolved. Since temperature plays a key role in metal cutting, impacting tool wear, cutting force and chip segmentation, there is a great deal of research on measuring temperatures in metal cutting. For example, Boothroyd 23 used infrared lm to map out steady state temperatures in turning. Chao et al. 24 used a PbS photoconductive cell to measure temperatures on the clearance face of the cutting tool. Prins 25 used a pyrometer to measure rake face temperatures. Lezanski and Shaw 26 used the intrinsic thermocouple method to determine temperature at the tool-chip contact. Ay et al. 27 embedded ne gauge thermocouples in a cutting tool to map out the temperature. Stephenson 28 , Muller et al. 29 , MSaoubi et al. 30 and Davies et al. 31,32 used thermal video cameras to measure temperatures in the deformation zone ahead of the cutting tool tip, temperatures at the chip-tool interface, and temperatures of the cutting tool. A survey of the temporal and spatial resolutions of these measurements show that the best temporal resolution is 50 s 25 . The best spatial resolution, 5 m is obtained in the thermal microscopy work of Davies et al. Note that there have been no experiments to measure temperatures at both high temporal and spatial resolution. There have been considerable efforts in characterizing deformation in metal cutting by placing grids on the undeformed surface. Many of these studies were performed by conducting cutting tests under very slow speeds, e.g. Bitans and Brown 33 were able to obtain pictures of deformed grid initially printed on the surface during cutting of wax at speed of 0.07 mm/s. Kufarev, as Zorev 34 describes in his book, studied the change in shape and the shift of the centers of the round prints of a diamond needle on a polished surface. The tests were carried out for cutting of copper at 0.3 mm/s. Palmer and Oxley 35 studied the trajectories and speeds of movement of chip particles by cinemetography for cutting speeds from 0.21 mm/s to 250 mm/s. They reported the thickness of primary shear zone for SAE 1015 under these speeds. Komanduri et al. 36 give a qualitative description of localized deformation by SEM imaging of segmented chips at cutting NOVEMBER 2003, Vol. 125 645

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speeds up to 3.6 m/s. In the current work we measure deformations while cutting 1018 CR Steel at 4 m/s using a 50 m square grid.

Experimental Setup and Procedure

To design an experiment tractable by FEM simulations and in which our high resolution infrared optics are securely mounted, a transient, orthogonal cutting experiment was developed. In this setup a cutting tool swings on the end of a 0.6 m long, 19 kg mass pendulum 37 . The pendulum supports, workpiece and the infrared system are securely mounted to an optical table. The maximum cutting speed, limited by the length of the pendulum, is 4.5 m/s. Materials that have been cut successfully include 1018 CR steel, 3.125 mm thick, at depths up to 250 m, 6061-T6 aluminum alloy up to 500 m, and Ti-6Al-4V, up to 150 m depths of cut. The cutting tool was a commercially available C6 grade carbide insert with 0 rake angle. The depth of cut is not constant, however for the rst 3 mm of cutting where we measure temperatures, it does not change more than 4%. In this region of interest, the cutting speed drops by 2% during cutting. The cutting force is measured via strain gauges bonded to both sides of the cutting tool holder. To synchronize the position of the cutting tool with the force and temperature signals, a photodiode-IR LED arrangement is used. The temperature of the workpiece and the chip is measured using a linear array of 16 liquid nitrogen cooled indium antimonide InSb infrared IR detectors. Similar systems have been used to measure temperature elds at the tips of dynamically growing fractures, 38,39,40 . IR radiation is focused onto the detectors through a 3 reective mirror system designed and fabricated at Cornell. The detectors are 81 m square with 100 m center to center spacing. Through the 3 lens, each detector focuses on a 27 27 m region on the workpiece. The total eld of view is 27 494 m. As shown in Fig. 1, the detector array was aligned parallel to the velocity of the cutting tool. Each detector element has its own preamplier. Outputs from these are recorded in parallel at up to 10 million samples/sec per element using two 4 channel, 12 bit, high speed Nicolet 4094 digitizers. Note that although signals were sampled at intervals of 100 ns, the temporal resolution is limited to 200 ns due to the nite bandwidth of the IR ampliers. The detectors are calibrated by recording the IR signal on the detectors when exposed to a range of known, uniform temperature elds. For each material tested a separate calibration curve was obtained. Since the temperatures measured in metal cutting are higher, especially for Ti-6Al-4V, than the temperature up to which calibration can be carried out, a 2nd order polynomial is tted to the available data and is used to extrapolate temperatures beyond the calibrated range. Similar techniques have been used for calibration by Guduru et al. 41 and Zehnder et al. 39,42 . Note that total radiant energy increases as T 4 , where T is the absolute temperature. However, due to the wavelength sensitivity of the IR detectors and taking as target surface temperature in C, the detector system output signal increases approximately as 2 . The workpiece is small sheet, 30 mm 20 mm and 3.25 mm CRS and Al or 1.905 mm Ti-6-4 thick. It is held in place by a rigid xture that ensures accurate and repeatable location of the test specimen with respect to the optical system. All specimens are prepared to a uniform surface nish by ne grain sand blasting, followed by polishing with 600 grit paper. The tool is adjusted in the pendulum arm such that it can cut the desired depth of cut. This is achieved by using a set-up-specimen which is a depth of cut shorter in height than the test specimens. The tool is adjusted so that it is just touching the top of set-up-specimen. Then for the actual cutting experiment the setup specimen is replaced by a test specimen. In a single experiment, the temperatures in a 27 494 m region can be mapped. With the help of X, Y and Z translation stages on which the detectors are mounted, we can focus on any region 646 Vol. 125, NOVEMBER 2003

Fig. 1 Schematic of orthogonal cutting showing a typical region on which IR detectors are focused in a single experiment.

of interest. Referring to the coordinate system shown in Fig. 1, by keeping Y position xed, we can change Z positions to see temperature evolution at various heights along the depth of cut. Thus, in a given set of experiments, we can scan all the region of interest. In some sense, each experiment is different, but we have tested the repeatability of the experiments extensively and forces, chip morphology and temperature signals for identical experiments have been found to be very repeatable. For example, the forces for all tests of a given material and given depth of cut are within 10 percent of each other. IR signals obtained in identical tests, looking at the same region on the workpiece did not differ more than 57 mV and the maximum IR signal obtained while cutting Al6061-T6 was found to be within 68 72 mV. It may be worth noting that experiments are repeatable only within the precision of the xtures involved; the height can be adjusted only within 50 m, the optical system is refocused from one series of tests to the other and the least count of micrometer used for this is 10 m. In addition to cutting forces and temperature measurements, the deformation of the chip is measured with high spatial resolution in a selected set of experiments.

Finite Element Analysis

Since the objective of the research was to explore the coupling of simulations and experiments, the depth of cut, cutting speed, and choice of materials in the simulations was dictated by the experiments. 1018 CR steel was chosen as the primary material for testing and simulation. Cutting of two other materials, Al6061-T6 and Ti-6Al-4V, were simulated once the methodology was established for 1018 CR steel. It should be noted that the methodology employed here is quite general. Using this approach Shet et al. 10,11 simulated AISI 4340 at cutting speeds up to 2.5 m/s and a range of rake angles between 15 deg30 deg and predicted residual stresses in AISI 1020 steel. All analyses and modeling were performed using ABAQUS Standard, a commercial, general purpose nite element code 43 . A schematic diagram of the FE model is shown in Fig. 2 a . A rigid cutting tool moves towards the left with a constant velocity, v , and removes a layer of workpiece material. The thickness of layer to be removed is decided a priori, and it is assumed that material separates along the line of cut, i.e. the path traced by the cutting tool tip. The tool is assumed to be sharp. To facilitate this material separation three contact pairs are dened in the FE model. Pair 1 is between the chip and rake face of the tool, pair 2 is dened between the bottom surface of the chip layer and the surface of the workpiece along the line of separation, pair 3 is between the workpiece and the tool tip, Fig. 2 a . Fixed displacement boundary conditions are assumed along edges DC, CB, and AB. Transactions of the ASME

yield stresses are 1018 CRS: 0 478 MPa, Al 6061: 0 276 MPa, and Ti-6-4: 0 1050 MPa. Room temperature Youngs moduli for these materials are 1018 CRS: 210 GPa, Al 6061: 70 GPa and Ti-6-4: 104 GPa. Figure 3 c shows hardening under static loading at room temperature. Flow stress as a function of strain level and temperature is given as a tabular input for FE program. Figure 3 d shows the data used along with the best t curves. The temperature dependence of the Youngs modulus workpiece only and of the thermal properties workpiece and tool are taken from standard references 48,49,50,51,52 and are accounted for in all simulations. Chip Separation Criterion. In this study two chip separation criteria are explored. The rst is based on a critical stress criterion. In this criterion nodes along the cutting path or between contact pair 2 and 3 in Fig. 2 separate, or debond, when the tensile stress at a specied distance ahead of that pair reaches a critical value. Limitations in the software used allow this critical value to depend on temperature, but not on strain rate or other parameters. With this in mind, the critical distance was chosen to be on the order of 2 or 3 element lengths 70100 m . At this distance, the strain rates are modest and one can justify the use of quasistatic strength values in the separation criterion. It should be noted that if this distance is chosen to be too large, the critical stress is never reached and the analysis does not converge as the elements adjacent to the tool keep severely deforming and there is no material separation along the line of cut. Using very small distances results in physically unrealistic, long cracks ahead of the tool. The values of distances and critical stresses chosen for different materials are: 1018 CR steel, critical stress of 648 MPa at 100 m, Al6061, critical stress of 350 MPa at 100 m, Ti-6Al-4V, critical stress of 1300 MPa at 20C and 450 MPa at 600C, at 75 m. The second procedure uses a critical distance criterion in which separation occurs at a xed distance ahead of the cutting tool tip. In this study we used a critical distance of one element length 35 m for 1018 CR steel and Al6061-T6 with 250 m depth of cut, and 21 m for Ti-6Al-4V with 150 m depth of cut . The goal here is not to claim that chip separation occurs by a given physical mechanism but to discover if any of the available criteria describe the process sufciently well. Cutting simulations using the two criteria were conducted with identical meshes and material properties. We observe that forces are consistently higher in the analyses using the critical distance criterion. The maximum temperatures reached are also higher in the critical distance criterion. However the higher temperatures occur in a small region, on the order of one element size near the rake face. In particular, it is noted that the critical stress criterion links separation directly to the material properties. This means that such a criterion is more likely to capture inhomogeneous material deformation, including formation of shear bands. Note also that this criterion results in separation extending some distance ahead of cutting tool. This is contrary to more commonly believed scenario that material separation occurs only as the tool reaches a material point and there is no crack of variable length ahead of cutting tool. We suspect that any separation criterion based on material properties in FE modeling will result in a region of separation ahead of the tool and that the length of this region will uctuate during transient cutting, particularly when there is localized deformation. If a critical distance criterion is used, it is assumed that there will not be a crack extending ahead of tool tip, however, the value of critical distance is an issue. Note that the critical distance can be made a function of cutting tool tip radius, however, in this work, the cutting tool was always assumed to be sharp, i.e. zero tool tip radius and the critical distance was taken to be one element size. Renement of the mesh and hence choice of different distances could lead to different results. Simulations performed using the critical distance criterion did not show the strain localizations which indicate the onset of segmented chip formation. However, strain localization is observed in the simulations using the critical stress criterion. This is illustrated in Fig. 4 which shows localized higher values of equivalent plastic NOVEMBER 2003, Vol. 125 647

Fig. 2 a Schematic of FE model showing contact pairs, b nite element mesh of the workpiece, chip layer and cutting tool.

A typical nite element mesh used in this work is illustrated in Fig. 2 b . The model consists of 3470 nodes in the workpiece and 80 nodes in the tool. The height of the chip layer is equal to the desired depth of cut 150 or 250 m . The characteristic length of elements in the chip layer is 14% of the depth of cut. Plane strain elements are used. The sharp, 0 deg rake angle, C6-carbide insert tool used in the experiments was modeled with zero tool-tip radius and effectively made rigid by using an articially high elastic modulus. Heat conduction into the tool is accounted for. The initial 64 deg inclination of the chip layer elements is used to alleviate numerical problems due to distortion of the elements as they separate from the workpiece and slide along the rake face of the tool. An initial chip separation is adopted in order to achieve a smooth transition of the cutting process in the beginning when tool rst comes in contact with the workpiece. Without this initial chip separation, it was not possible to obtain the convergence.

Constitutive Models
The thermal and mechanical properties of both the workpiece and the tool are critical to the thermomechanically coupled analysis. Inelastic deformation of the workpiece materials is modeled with an overstress power law model, written as 44
n

p D
0

, for

for
0

(1) (2)

p 0,

where p is the effective plastic strain rate, is the current ow stress, and 0 is the static ow stress. This rate dependent power law is highly suitable for high strain rate applications at nite strains. The values of D and n, Table 1, are temperature independent and are obtained for the three materials as best ts to the available high strain rate data 44 47 . The temperature and strain dependence in the model comes from the dependence of the current ow stress on strain and temperature, i.e. 0 f ( , p ), where is the temperature, and p is the effective plastic strain. These values are taken from Refs. 48,49 . It is assumed that 90% of the plastic work is dissipated thermally 42 . Temperature dependence of initial yield stress under static loading and Youngs modulus are illustrated in Figs. 3 a, b . Initial Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Fig. 3 a Variation of initial yield stress with temperature. b variation of elastic modulus with temperature. c strain hardening under quasistatic loading. d dependence of ow stress on strain rate, data points for Al6061 45 and Ti-6Al-4V 46 are from experiments and those for steel are from Shawki-Clifton model 44. Lines show best t curves obtained using parameters in Table 1.

strains forming periodic bands on the chip. Lacking adaptive remeshing, ABAQUS Standard is not capable of simulating segmented chip formation. However, the presence of localized bands of deformation in Figs. 4 a, b indicates the onset of segmented chip formation for both Al 6061 and Ti-6-4, consistent with the experiments in which segmented chips are formed for cutting these materials at 4.3 m/s. It is also noted that for Al6061-T6, plastic strain contours appear to emanate from the tool tip, while for Ti-6Al-4V the plastic deformation extends a small distance ahead of the tool tip on the order of 50 m . A similar trend is observed for temperature elds in Ti-6Al-4V, i.e. they also seem to extend some distance ahead of the cutting tool in the simulations using critical stress criterion. It was observed during the experiments that temperature elds in Ti-6Al-4V extend signicantly ahead of the cutting tool. The correlation between plastic strain and temperature elds is expected, especially in the region where plastic strains are the only source of heat generation. Thermal and Frictional Contact Between Chip and Rake Face. Friction along the tool-chip interface plays a critical role in the metal cutting process since it directly affects cutting force,

power and amount of energy dissipated at the chip-tool interface. In this study, it is modeled using the modied Coulomb friction law for the contact pair 1 in Fig. 2 a . Let be the chip shear stress at a contact point along the tool-chip interface and p be the normal pressure at the same point. This law states that slip occurs when c and sliding occurs when c . The critical friction stress is given by
c

min

p,

th

(3)

Table 1 Best t values of D and n Material Al 6061 1018 CR steel Ti-6Al-4V D, 1/s 1.63 10 5.13 109 2.23 104
5

n 1.75 10.95 1.53

where is the friction coefcient and th is a threshold value related to material failure. It should be noted that the conventional Coulomb friction law is recovered if th is set to innity. For this study, th was chosen to be the shear yield stress of the workpiece materials at the anticipated tool-chip interface temperature. These were taken to be: c 388 MPa for 1018 CRS, 170 MPa for Al 6061, and 310 MPa for Ti-6Al-4V. The friction coefcients 0.1 and 0.3 are explored. As discussed later, 0.3 appears to provide the best comparison between experimental and FE results, considering temperature, contact length and cutting force. The thermal contact on the tool-chip interface is another important parameter in the simulation. If there is perfect thermal contact, the temperatures across the chip-rake face interface are continuous. This seems to be a reasonable assumption in steady state cutting, however it is not clear if this assumption is valid for transient cutting. If thermal contact is poor, then even for low coefcients of friction, temperatures occur close to the rake face. As the coefcient of friction is increased, the maximum temperature increases. If thermal contact is high, then the maximum temperatures reached are reduced signicantly. In the case of lower coefcients of friction, the location of occurrence of maximum temperature shifts substantially away from the rake face and into Transactions of the ASME

648 Vol. 125, NOVEMBER 2003

Fig. 5 Variation of maximum temperature with gap conductance for 1018 CR steel, Al6061-T6, and Ti-6Al-4V. FE simulations using critical distance criterion.

Fig. 4 FE simulated cutting at 4.3 ms, 0.3. The contour plot shows equivalent plastic strains. Localized regions of plastic strain form bands on the chip surface, indicating onset of segmented chip formation a Al6061-T6, d 250 m b Ti6Al-4V, d 150 m.

the chip. As the coefcient of friction is increased, the location of maximum temperature moves closer to the rake face. This is illustrated in Fig. 5, which shows how the maximum temperature reached in FE simulation for three different materials is affected by gap conductance, k, across chip-rake face interface, where the gap conductance is dened as q k
2
A B

,
2

(4)

and q is heat ux, W/m , k is the gap conductance, W/m K and A and B are temperatures on the two sides of the gap. Figure 6 shows how the temperature eld changes when k varies from 104 to 107 W/m2 K. It is noted that in the case of higher k, maximum temperatures are lower and occur in the chip at a distance of the order of 2550 m away from the rake face rather than at the chip-rake face interface. This is due to the large heat ux out of the chip into the cold cutting tool when thermal contact is high. In the context of Coulomb friction, thermal contact conditions and the coefcient of friction need not be related directly. Moreover, it is not clear if Coulomb friction is the right assumption for the conditions prevailing on the rake face. For example Moufki et al. 53 suggest that the coefcient of friction may depend on temperature. It may also be a function of contact pressure. One can conjecture that thermal contact is a function of contact pressure and would improve with increased contact pressure. One can also conjecture that if coefcient of friction were to be a function of contact pressure, it would increase with increased contact pressure. In this scenario, higher contact pressure would result in inJournal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Fig. 6 Change in FE using critical distance and 0.3 temperature eld C with gap conductance k while cutting 1018 CR steel a low conductance, k 104 Wm2 "K b high conductance, k 107 Wm2 "K.

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creased temperatures due to greater friction but would result in reduced temperatures due to better thermal contact and greater heat conduction.

Experimental Results and Comparison to FE Simulations

Temperature Measurement. Figure 1 shows schematically the eld of view of the IR detectors and the coordinate frame used in the following discussion. Experimental data was obtained for 1018 CR steel, Al6061-T6 and Ti-6Al-4V. Figure 7 shows the temperatures from different elements of the IR array system for a single experiment cutting 1018 CR steel at 4.3 m/s, 250 m depth of cut. In this case, the line of view of the IR array is 250 m above the line of cut; i.e. the view is just along the free surface of the workpiece. Detector element number 16 sees the cutting rst and detector number 3 sees the cutting last, e.g. referring to Fig. 1, detector 16 is focused on point A and detector 3 is focused on B. Since this is a transient cutting experiment, we note that the temperature increases as cutting progresses. The maximum temperature at any point, such as A in Fig. 1, is recorded when cutting tool is very near to A. The signal on the detector drops off as the cutting tool passes through its eld of view. Figure 7 shows the temperature until the maximum temperature is reached. Figure 8 a shows the comparison of results from the FE study with experimental result for temperature evolution at a point 1.55 mm from the beginning of cutting and 250 m above the line of cut. We note that the FE model tracks the temperature rise reasonably well. The cutting experiments are repeated by moving the detectors along the Z axis. Figure 9 a shows maximum temperatures obtained during a set of nine experiments and is compared with FE results for 0.1 and 0.3. In this case, the peak temperature rise 250 m above the tool tip is about 330C. Figure 10 shows the IR signals obtained on the same detector element in ve of these repeat experiments in which detectors are focused at 0, 150, 250, 300, and 400 m for 1018 CRS and Al 6061, and 0, 50, 100, 150, 200 m for Ti-6-4, above the line of cut. Let us call these locations P, Q, R, S and T respectively. The IR signals before calibration are shown to give an illustration of what the raw data look like. Note the excellent agreement for the time when the maximum signal is recorded. This corresponds fairly closely with the time when the tools rake face has just reached the region being seen by the detector. Thus, we note that the highest temperatures occur close to the rake face as expected. Note that there is a spread of about 5-6 s in the time duration

Fig. 8 Temperatures, experimental and FE comparison of evolution of temperature at a point 1.55 mm from start of cut. a 1018 CR steel b Al6061-T6 c Ti-6Al-4V.

Fig. 7 Experimental data while cutting 1018 CRS. Detector array is focused along the original free surface of the workpiece 250 m above the line of cut.

when the signals shown reach maximum value. This is attributed to experimental scatter, since these signals are taken from ve different experiments. The tool travels 2025 m in 5 6 s. The position detection system shows an uncertainty of about 25 m in the repeated experiments. Given these limitations, along with the understanding that IR systems resolution is 27 27 m, it is assumed in this study that all the maximum values of the signal are reached at the same time instant when the tools rake face has just reached the point of interest. Figure 10 illustrates how the rise time for temperature at a given point depends on its height. This is consistent with the shear plane model of cutting, where the shear plane extends away from the tool tip towards the free surface. Thus we note that the temTransactions of the ASME

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Fig. 9 Max Temperatures: Experimental and FE using critical distance criterion vs. height a 1018 CR steel b Al6061-T6 c Ti-6Al-4V.

Fig. 10 IR signals at different heights for a 1018 CR steel b Al6061-T6 c Ti-6Al-4V.

perature at point P along the line of cut rises last since this point sees the deformation and temperature rise just as tool tip reaches very close to it. However, at points Q, R, S and T above the line of cut the temperature rises sooner. For points S and T which were not in the original workpiece material, the beginning of temperature rise is an indication of when cut chip reaches that point. The thickness of the cut chip can be calculated as the time duration for the rise at such point multiplied by the cutting tool velocity. Given our uncertainty about tool position, cutting velocity and relative position of maximum temperature with position of rake face, this is an approximate calculation. For 1018 CRS, points S Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

and T show a rise time about 100 s, indicating 100 s 4.3 m/s 430 m of chip thickness. This is close to measured chip thickness of 400 m. Converting the data from the above set of experiments to temperature using the detector calibrations, the temperature distribution ahead of the cutting tool can be visualized. Figure 11 b shows the temperature distribution in 1018 CRS ahead of the cutting tool after 350 s of cutting. It is compared with the FE contour plot obtained from analysis based on the critical stress criterion with 0.3 in Fig. 11 a . The FE temperature eld agrees well 100 m and above the line of cut. The FE temperature eld close to tool tip just above the line of cut decreases rapidly in magnitude whereas experimental contours show a more gradual change. Although the FE analysis predicts higher maximum temNOVEMBER 2003, Vol. 125 651

Fig. 11 Comparison of experimental and FE using critical stress criterion and 0.3 temperature eld ahead of cutting tool while cutting 1018 CR steel at 4.3 ms, 250 m depth of cut, 350 s after the beginning of cut.

peratures, they occur within 50 m of the rake face. In general, FE contours are more closely packed than the experimentally measured contours. Further experimentation, possibly with a two dimensional array of detectors, 54 combined with advances in FE simulations would help resolve these discrepancies. With similar sets of experiments, temperature elds are obtained for Al6061-T6 and Ti-6Al-4V. The temperature rise for Al6061 is less than that for 1018CR steel, the maximum temperatures being of the order of 220C. The signals at different heights are illustrated in Fig. 10 b . Figure 12 shows the temperature distribution ahead of the cutting tool after 350 s of cutting. It is

compared with an FE contour plot obtained from analysis based 0.3 shown in Fig. 12 b . The on critical distance criterion with FE temperature eld agrees well at 100 m and above the line of cut. Similar to the observations for steel, the FE temperature eld close to the cutting tool tip just above the line of cut decreases rapidly in magnitude whereas experimental contours show a more gradual change. Also, FE predicts higher maximum temperatures within 30 m of the rake face. Temperature rise in Ti-6Al-4V is much higher than Al6061-T6 and 1018 CR steel. Maximum temperatures up to about 800C are observed. Figure 10 c shows IR signals obtained on a single detector as the tests were repeated by changing the position of the line of detectors along Z axis. Figure 13 shows the temperature distribution ahead of the cutting tool after 150 s of cutting. It is compared with FE contour plots obtained from analysis based on critical distance criterion with 0.3 in Fig. 13 b and FE based 0.1 and 0.3 in Figs. 13 c, d respecon critical stress and tively. It is noted, as stated in the earlier section, that the critical distance criterion shows slightly higher maximum temperatures. Also, Fig. 13 c, d demonstrate how an increased coefcient of friction increases maximum temperatures, especially near the rake face. In all materials the FE temperature eld shows higher temperatures near the rake face and the contours are more closely packed. In other words, experiments predict more diffused temperature eld than FE analysis. FE predicts higher maximum temperatures, but again they occur only within 50 m of the tools rake face. Both of these differences between the FE and experimental results reect the nite spatial resolution of the temperature measurements. Note that temperature is measured on the surface; the toolchip interface may be hotter. Note also that the temperatures could be considerably higher under steady state conditions where the initially cool cutting tool cannot act as a heat sink. Contact Length. After a series of tests, the cutting tool insert shows a burnished region where the chip slides over the rake surface. Table 2 shows a comparison of contact lengths from experiments and FE analyses for different materials. The table, along with comparison of the FE temperature elds to the experiments 0.3 is a reasonable choice for the friction suggests that coefcient.

Fig. 12 Comparison of experimental and FE using critical distance criterion and 0.3 temperature eld ahead of cutting tool while cutting Al6061-T6 at 4.3 ms, 250 m depth of cut, 350 s after the beginning of cut.

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Fig. 13 Comparison of experimental and FE temperature eld ahead of cutting tool while cutting Ti-6Al-4V at 4.3 ms, 150 m depth of cut, 150 s after the beginning of cut a experimental b FE critical distance, 0.3 c FE critical stress, 0.1, d FE critical stress, 0.3

Cutting Force. Dividing the cutting force by the depth of cut and thickness of the sample, the average measured cutting forces were 1018 CRS: 1120 MPa, Al 6061: 640 MPa and Ti-6-4: 1670 MPa. The cutting force from the FE simulations did not strongly depend on the coefcient of friction. The cutting force was higher when the critical distance criterion was used. With the critical stress criterion and using 0.3, the FE cutting force was 1018 CRS: 1200 MPa, Al 6061: 660 MPa and Ti-6-4: 2070 MPa. The FE and experimental cutting force results agree well for the CRS and Al. However, for Ti-6-4, the FE cutting force is considerably higher than the experiments. This could indicate that the strain rate hardening used for Ti-6-4 was too large or that the thermal softening was insufcient or that the separation criterion used too large a stress value. Deformation Measurement. A ne gauge grid method was developed to measure deformation in orthogonal metal cutting. The goal is to develop a simple, inexpensive method which can be used to measure deformation elds with high spatial resolution under a wide range of cutting conditions and material choices. A 50 m grid pattern was deposited onto the polished polished surface of a 1018 CR steel workpiece using a TEM grid as a

Table 2 Comparison of contact length on the rake face, in m, for different materials and friction coefcients. FE results based on critical stress separation criterion. Material 1018 CR Steel Al6061-T6 Ti-6Al-4V Experimental 500 585 440 FE, 345 475 300 0.1 FE, 475 530 450 0.3

mask. The sample was cut at a speed of 4.0 m/s, and a depth of 500 m, deeper than the depth used for the temperature measurements so that a large number of grid points would be available relative to the depth of cut. The cut chip is collected and the deformed grid pattern on this chip is then imaged using scanning electron microscopy, Fig. 14 a . The image is processed by outlining the edges of the deformed grid and calculating the centroids. A best t ellipse is found for each deformed contour, as shown in Fig. 14 b along with the directions of the major and minor axes of the best t ellipses. If the original circle of radius r deforms into an ellipse with major and minor axes a and b respectively, then, a/r and b/r are the principal stretches. Principal stretches obtained from three such rows of grids are plotted in Fig. 14 c . It is noted that principal stretches decrease as one moves away from the rake face. High values of principal stretches in row B indicate the presence of a shear band. In Fig. 14 c , principal stretches are plotted and compared with FE results ( 0.1, critical distance criterion . Since the FE results show very similar values of deformations in the region detailed in Fig. 14 b , there is only one line showing FE results in the Fig. 14 c . Simulations with 0.3 show very high values of maximum stretch, up to 7, very near the rake face, but at about 150 m from the rake face, the values fall to the almost same level as those for 0.1. Experimental measurements show less deformation that the simulations. This is expected, given that any experimental method averages deformation over a nite region.

Summary and Conclusions

Temperature elds in transient orthogonal metal cutting have been measured experimentally with a spatial resolution of 27 27 m and temporal resolution of 200 ns. This is accomplished NOVEMBER 2003, Vol. 125 653

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measure deformations occurring during cutting of 1018 CR steel at 4 m/s. Principal stretches of up to 3 are measured. Finite element simulations were performed using a general purpose code. It is shown that friction, chip separation criterion and the extent of thermal contact can play a signicant role in dening temperature and deformation elds. The novel experimental methods presented here provide an opportunity to gather local data, that when used in conjunction with simulations could lead to realistic computational cutting models.

Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation CMS 9700698 . This work made use of the Cornell Center for Material Research Shared Experimental Facilities, supported through the National Science Foundation Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers Program DMR0079992 . Particular acknowledgement is made of the use of the Research Computing Facility and of the Materials Facility. The rst author wishes to thank Ms. Nidhi Sawhney for useful discussions on image processing in Matlab.

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Fig. 14 a SEM image of deformed chip b images processed by Matlab c maximum principal stretches, distance on horizontal axis is measured from the surface of the chip that passes over the rake face of the tool

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