INTRODUCTION

Open space in urban environments, be it a formal park, an informal gathering place or inviting streetscape, contributes to a sense of community and can encourage pedestrian activity. The challenge to creating inviting open spaces in hot, arid climates such as Phoenix is mitigating extreme summer temperatures to allow year-round pedestrian and outdoor activity. In this study, a microscale climate analysis was conducted using the software ENVI-met to examine the effects of various urban design elements on thermal comfort with the goal of creating open spaces that are usable year round. Specifically, this project develops a set of site scenarios with various physical, design, and materials differences, and applies the ENVI-met program to each scenario to analyze ambient site temperature.

TECHNICAL CONTEXT
There has been a rise in concern regarding Urban Heat Island (UHI), which results in the increase in nighttime temperatures due to the absorption of heat in materials such as asphalt. Urban design, architecture techniques, and heat reducing materials can be used to reduce both the UHI effect and increase daytime thermal comfort, allowing for pedestrian spaces to be comfortable year round, day and night. Recent research has examined the impact of UHI in Phoenix, which has become a particular concern as the urbanized area grows. The number of hours per day with temperatures exceeding 100F during July and August (the peak summer months) have increased significantly, from 3.6 hours to 6.4 hours in the last 50 years. Additionally, nighttime temperatures have increased by 12 F over the last 20 years in the Phoenix area (Gober, 2006). This exacerbates the need for urban design standards which can improve the outdoor environment, especially since the nighttime temperature is projected to increase approximately 15F by 2015 and 25F by 2100 (Brazel, 2003). Fortunately, both the UHI effect and thermal comfort can be improved through urban design.

Improved Pedestrian Thermal Comfort Through Urban Design

Jennifer Love Master of Urban and Environmental Planning Professional Project May 2009 jenlove@asu.edu

STUDY APPROACH
This study looked to build upon the open space concepts of the Urban Form Project, but also to adapt these concepts at a microscale level, integrating practical urban form to the existing structure of the downtown and retrofitting existing public spaces. Various urban design elements which impact thermal comfort were examined in this study, applied to a specific test site in downtown Phoenix, and subsequently analyzed using the software ENVI-met. Urban Design Elements Influencing Thermal Comfort Urban design can be used to create a pleasant outdoor space while reducing outdoor ambient air temperature. As building placement and design have previously been studied extensively, this project focused on landscaping type and placement, air circulation, and material type,

Improved Pedestrian Thermal Comfort Through Urban Design

which can all contribute to creating acceptable ambient temperatures for outdoor urban site activities during periods of extreme heat. The following are key design elements which may be used to improve thermal comfort: Shaded Pedestrianways Clustered/Broad Canopy Trees Grass Water Material Type

Shaded Pedestrianways Building shade, covered walkways and awnings, depicted in Figure 1, are important urban design elements that should be utilized to provide shaded open space and pedestrianways. These design elements reduce the amount of direct sun, thus improving thermal comfort and reducing sun exposure, which can improve the ambient air temperature by up to 15% (Urban Form Project Working Paper #8, 2007). At the Phoenix latitude, buildings can be used to provide shade on the south side of the street in the summer months during the hottest part of the day by casting a shadow to the north of the building. To balance this, shade trees should be planted on the north side of the street, which is the south side of a building. Covered walkways and canopies extending from buildings can also be used to shade and cool pedestrians. These can be built along eastwest streets for extended lengths or for individualized locations. These amenities can provide pedestrian refuge and shade along the north side of the street, while the south side requires less intensive pedestrian oriented shading due to the building shadow. Clustered/Broad Canopy Trees Increasing the cover of trees in an urban environment is a simple and effective way to improve thermal comfort. Street trees will be most effective in providing true shade, commanding visual contrast between dense landscaping and open space when planted in groups. Trees should be located to maximize shade for pedestrians, such as along walkways and sidewalks, depicted in Figure 2. Planting trees to provide building shade is important to reduce the radiant temperature of buildings and objects such as benches. Additionally, evapotranspiration from a trees leaves in hot weather cools the air around the tree with 65% of the heat from full sunlight on a tree being dissipated by the trees canopy (Coder, 1996).

Figure 1 Shaded Pedestrianways in Phoenix

Figure 2 Shade Trees in Phoenix

Improved Pedestrian Thermal Comfort Through Urban Design

Clusters of trees are ideal for providing pedestrian and open space shade to facilitate comfortable pedestrian circulation and outdoor seating areas. For example, palm trees cast long shadows and are very useful for providing pedestrian shade when grouped together, but they must be used thoughtfully due to their long shadow. Grass Grass can be used to cool an area and can be appropriately used in a desert climate if designed in conjunction with summer shade. Creating open spaces, with or without grass, improves the air circulation throughout the core area of a downtown, which can help to mitigate hot air trapped within dense developments. Open space areas with grass will achieve more pleasant conditions given the cooling effect of grass through evapotranspiration. Temperatures over grass areas are cooler than over bordering areas, as illustrated in Figure 3. Water Features The use of water features, such as fountains or waterfalls, can have a significant impact on thermal comfort, potentially improving temperatures up to 7.5% (UFP, WP#8, 2007). In an arid climate, water promotes cooling through evaporation as well as absorbing heat from surrounding materials. Flowing water promotes air movement which can cool a space. Water also has a psychological cooling effect, making a space seem cooler even if there is no measurable temperature change (UFP WP#8, 2007). Material Type Materials used for pavement and amenities such as benches should be selected based on their color, permeability, conductivity and emissivity (ability of objects to shed heat). Lighter color materials with low emissivity retain less heat and contribute to lowering the temperature in a space. Suggested material types and benefits are: Concrete lighter color reflects energy from sun Recycle crumb rubber added to material mix lower heat retention Porous pavement less dense, able to transmit air and moisture to the environment encouraging healthy growth of trees (UFP, 2008). The heat retention of different materials is visible in Figure 4. Areas paved with asphalt appear red indicating higher temperatures from retained heat. By contrast, the areas paved with lighter colored concrete appear green indicating lower temperatures. Existing Conditions Prior to conducting the scenario analysis as part of this study, detailed temperature measurements were obtained for two sites and material surfaces throughout downtown Phoenix. Key temperature findings are

Figure 3 Cooling Effect of Grass

Figure 4 Temperature Difference in Paving Materials

Improved Pedestrian Thermal Comfort Through Urban Design

presented in Figure 5 and Table 1. These temperatures were collected using a Raytek infrared heat sensor on July 28, 2008, between 12:00 p.m. and 2:00 p.m. All of the listed materials in Table 1 are commonly used throughout the Phoenix area.

Temperature ( Fahrenheit)
Figure 5 Existing Site Conditions Field Measurements

Material Textured Pavement (medium gray), Filtered Shade Sandstone Bench (pink), Filtered Shade Concrete (light gray), Filtered Shade Wooden Bench, Filtered Shade Dirt and Gravel walkway, Filtered Shade Concrete (light gray), Solid Shade Grass, Solid Shade
Table 1 Existing Surface Conditions Field Measurements

Temperature F 108.9 104.0 103.1 97.6 95.5 88.2 85.4

The first site measured was the Arizona Center, which has successfully implemented many urban design techniques which cool the public space. This site served as the study control, evaluating the success of the proposed techniques on the test site. The second site, in downtown Phoenix, was selected to test the microclimate conditions of various urban design scenarios. The site, shown in Figure 6, is a 5,260 square foot underutilized open space at the northeast corner of 3rd Avenue and Jefferson Street adjacent to

Improved Pedestrian Thermal Comfort Through Urban Design

several municipal buildings. Methodology

Figure 6 Northeast Corner of 3rd Avenue and Jefferson

The test site layout established for the ENVI-met model was extended to include each of the structures at the corners of the intersection to incorporate the air flow through the space, as well as the heat retention of the street pavement. This site was selected to test various scenarios, applying urban design principles and propose site changes in order to improve pedestrian thermal comfort. The ENVI-met modeling software can be used for macro- or microscale analysis to evaluate daytime climate. Material type, building configuration, air flow, climate conditions, and landscape are input into the software with the output being a climate analysis of a site. The software allows for the evaluation of various scenarios and configurations by performing multiple analyses, as outlined in Figure 7.

Figure 7 ENVI-met Model Process

Improved Pedestrian Thermal Comfort Through Urban Design

Scenarios Ten scenarios were modeled using ENVI-met in addition to the existing conditions. The scenarios were iterative and cumulative, measuring the impacts of incremental changes in material type, landscape, and shading. The overall approach to the scenario modeling was to examine the impact of minor changes to the existing site, adding additional shading and changing the paving materials, and modifying site layout. These scenarios, described in Table 2, examined: Impact of maximizing shade within the space, Improving only the area between the street and open space by creating a buffer from the heat radiating from the street, Creating a shade buffer from the sun angles of the east and west, Shade circumventing the open space while not actually providing any improvements to the core of the space.

Scenario 1

Description Existing infrastucture Add significant shade trees Existing infrastucture Add significant shade trees Change hardscape surfaces to light colored permeable pavers Existing infrastucture Add significant shade trees and a Add permeable paver pathway through turf area Existing infrastucture Add significant shade trees Add light colored permeable paver pathway through turf area Change hardscape surfaces to light colored permeable pavers Modify layout to increase turf and shade tree area adjacent to roadway Add significant shade trees Add permeable paver pathway through turf area Change hardscape surface

Scenario

Description Modify layout to increase turf and shade tree area adjacent to roadway Add significant shade trees Add permeable paver pathway through turf area Change hardscape surface Add a water feature Fill the entire space with turf and shade trees Leave only minimal walkways around the perimeter utilizing light colored permeable pavers Retain existing core space Add shade trees and use light colored permeable pavement along the southern and western edges Retain existing core space Add shade trees along the eastern and western edges Retain existing core space Add shade trees around the perimeter

10

Table 2 Scenario Descriptions

RESULTS
The characteristics and results for each scenario are detailed in Figure 8. This summarizes the improvements made, estimated investment required, and temperature improvement.

Improved Pedestrian Thermal Comfort Through Urban Design

Landscaping/Building Input
Grass Broad Canopy Tree Palm Tree Building No Vegetation

Material
Concrete Permeable Paver Building Soil

Temperature
Temperature (F)
104.3 F 105.4 F 106.4 F 107.5 F 108.6 F 109.7 F 110.8 F 111.8 F 112.9 F 114.3 F

Temperature Range
% Low (103-106F) % Medium (106-109F) % High (109-112F) % Very High (112-115F) 0 0 70 30 0 0 86 14 3 23 70 4 0 4 85 11 24 66 10 0 0 86 14 0 6 85 9 0 0 76 24 0 0 53 47 0 0 0 93 7 0 7 93 0

Output
Total Cost Average Site Temperature (F) Peak Site Temperature (F) Temperature Change (F) 112.9 114 $4,400 113.1 113.8 -2.1 $65,400 108.6 113 -6.6 $23,400 109.4 113.5 -5.8 $180,400 105.8 109.9 -9.4 $144,100 106.5 109.9 -8.7 $157,100 106 110 -9.2 $154,200 108.4 110.2 -6.8 $118,600 109.1 111.9 -6.1 $3,300 110.7 113 -4.5 $24,400 110.3 111.8 -4.9

Figure 8 Temperature Difference in Paving Materials

Scenario 10

Scenario 9

Scenario 8

Scenario 7

Scenario 6

Scenario 5

Scenario 4

Scenario 3

Scenario 2

Scenario 1

Existing

Key

Improved Pedestrian Thermal Comfort Through Urban Design

Figure 9 outlines the peak, average and low temperatures by scenario. The largest temperature improvement is Scenario 4, with a nearly 10 F reduction in average site temperatures and a 4F reduction in the peak site temperature. This scenario utilized a combination of elements consisting of cool pavement types, shade, and buffering the heat flowing into the site from the street. An important finding is that the peak temperature can be significantly reduced through urban design improvements.

Scenario 1

Scenario 2

Scenario 3

Scenario 4

Scenario 5

Scenario 6

Scenario 7

Scenario 8

Scenario 9

Scenario
Figure 9 Peak, Average and Lowest Temperature, by Scenario

Figure 10 outlines the intensity of heat by scenario. The results indicate that Scenario 4 is the most effective configuration to reduce the overall intensity of temperatures in the site. This scenario has the highest percentage of low temperatures and the lowest percentage of the space in the high temperature range. The maximum average site temperature reduction in the scenario analysis is comparable with the measurements taken at the Arizona Center in downtown Phoenix. The Arizona Center is an example of a

Scenario 10

Existing

Improved Pedestrian Thermal Comfort Through Urban Design

site which utilizes design techniques that improve thermal comfort. As shown previously, the difference between the existing baseline temperatures at the Arizona Center and the 3rd Avenue and Jefferson Street site is approximately 12F, which is similar to that reflected in the scenario analysis. This confirms that the ENVI-met model can approximate temperature reductions due to urban design improvements and validates the scenario modeling for this study.

Temperature Range %

Scenario 1

Scenario 2

Scenario 3

Scenario 4

Scenario 5

Scenario 6

Scenario 7

Scenario 8

Scenario 9

Scenario
Figure 10 Intensity of Heat, by Scenario

Cost estimates for each scenario were developed based on past bid tabulations from the City of Phoenix and are included in Figure 8. While the costs of the scenarios vary, several cost effective recommendations can be implemented to provide an improvement to thermal comfort. The most expensive scenario, #4 at $185,000, was the scenario with the greatest temperature improvement. Several other scenarios provided an improvement in thermal comfort at a lower cost. Scenario #8, which buffered the open space from the street provided a 6F reduction in average temperature at a cost of $122,000. Providing additional shade and lighter, porous material in the interior of the space, as modeled in Scenario #3, cooled the space approximately 6F at the cost of $71,000. The least expensive option, Scenario #9, examined the sun angle impact to the space and showed a temperature reduction of 4.5F, although the

Scenario 10

Existing

Improved Pedestrian Thermal Comfort Through Urban Design

intensity of the heat was not reduced as much as the other scenarios with 93% of the space in the high temperature range. Key findings of the study, grouped by individual and cumulative effects, were: Individual: 1. The use of lighter colored and porous material can reduce the temperatures radiating from the paving materials by nearly 7F 2. Increasing shade through vegetation in a space can reduce the temperature by 2F. 3. Simply buffering the air flow from hotter street pavement can decrease the temperature 6 F. Cumulative: 1. Site configuration which maximizes shade, use of turf and lighter, porous paving materials can decrease the site temperatures between 8-9F. 2. Shade used to provide protection from sun angles can cool the space approximately 4F, although it does not significantly reduce the intensity of the heat in the space. 3. Both peak temperature and intensity or percentage of high temperature areas in the space can be reduced.

CONCLUSIONS
Overall, the analysis results show that retrofitting existing spaces can provide substantial improvements and that costly, major infrastructure investment is not required to improve thermal comfort in open spaces. Inexpensive improvements, such as protecting a site from sun angles, can have a cooling impact to a space at a relatively low cost. Improving or protecting a site from hotter air flowing in can also reduce the overall intensity of the heat in a space. The use of significant tree coverage results in improved thermal comfort in urban spaces to encourage day time use. Pavement material type is significant, and the use light colored, porous materials has been demonstrated to reduce heat retention and site temperature. The implications of this study for hot, urban communities are that material types are key factors in thermal comfort in urban environments and that adjacent spaces, such as intersections or streets, can impact the temperature of a space due to airflow. The model results can be used to project potential temperature reductions in other spaces such as plazas and courtyards. The cooling concepts can also be applied to linear spaces such as pedestrianways, as the radiative material qualities and shade impacts are much the same, with a greater impact from airflow into a space.

Improved Pedestrian Thermal Comfort Through Urban Design

This project contributes to the creation of a more inviting pedestrian network in the interest of establishing a sense of identity for downtown Phoenix as well as other urban areas. The results from this project, specifically the resulting temperature analysis, can be applied to understand the impacts urban design and site planning have on microclimates in order to create more climate appropriate spaces. The results are intended for use by the City of Phoenix to understand the impact of the built environment on daytime pedestrian activity in the urban core of the city. Although this study examined a specific site, findings can be transferred to other sites to allow communities to implement measures to reduce the overall daytime temperatures of spaces in the urban core and thereby improving thermal comfort. The City will potentially expand upon this research, requiring developers and municipal infrastructure projects to meet a minimum temperature threshold. This study shows that the ENVI-met software is a useful tool for planners to analyze and predict the thermal comfort impacts of various developments. This research also translates to other communities, both in arid climates similar to Phoenix and seemingly dissimilar climates which can adapt the modeling process for their needs. Additional study would be required to determine urban design impacts in other types of climates.