Arthur Schultze - Teaching Mathematics in Secondary Schools

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THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK
DALLAS
BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO
MACMILLAN &
LONDON
CO., LIMITED BOMBAY CALCUTTA MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN
CO. OF TORONTO
CANADA, LTB
THE
TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS
IN
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
BY
ARTHUR SCHULTZE
Nefo gotk
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1928
All rights restrvtd
TEE UNITED WAXES OF AMERICA
COPYRIGHT, 1912,
BY
Set
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
June, 1914;
up and electrotyped. Published July, 1912. Reprinted May, 1916; April, 1918; October, 1920; February, 1922; May, 1923; August, 1924; June, 1926; May, 1927;
September, 1928.
J. 8.
NortoooD $ttf Berwick ft Smith Co. Gushing Co. Norwood, Man., U.S.A.
PREFACE
of lectures at
SINCE 1906 the author has delivered a yearly course New York University on the Teaching of These lectures Mathematics in Secondary Schools.
consisted largely of a concrete discussion of the prob-
lems that arise in actual teaching. This book was planned on similar lines, but the pressure of professional duties, coupled with ill health, made it impossible to carry out this concrete treatment of the subject through the entire extent of secondary school work. The author hopes, however, that all important and fundamental topics have been treated in such detail as to
be of real assistance to the inexperienced teacher, to whom the generalities of abstract pedagogy are not
only useless, but often meaningless.
The
more
chief object of this
book
is
to contribute
towards
making mathematical teaching

disciplinary.
less informational
and
Most teachers admit

its
that mathe-
matical instruction derives
importance from the men-
tal training that it affords, and not from the informaBut in spite of these theoretical tion that it imparts.
views, a great deal of mathematical teaching is still informational. Students still learn demonstrations instead
of learning
how
to demonstrate.
This
is
partly due to
VI
PREFACE
external conditions over which the teacher has no control,
but partly also to the fact that a number of teach-
opportunity to become acquainted with the details of modern methods of teaching matheers have
had
little
and hence largely employ the methods by which they themselves were taught. There can be no doubt that the two excellent American books on the teaching
matics,
the one by David Eugene Smith, the are of great assistance to other by J. W. A. Young teacher, but these books cannot answer many conevery crete questions on account of the wide range of subjects
of mathematics
that they treat of.
This book covers a

it
much more
re-
stricted field, but does
in greater detail
All refer-
ences to elementary school work, to history, to the description of movements in other countries, to the
material equipment,
to
mathematical clubs,
etc.,
are
excluded, and the discussion of general methods is restricted to their fundamental and most useful phases.
This book
to
is
modern
in the sense that
make mathematical and tries to show how
instruction
less
it attempts informational
to train students in attacking
mathematical problems instead of merely making them learn mathematical facts. But it is not modern in the
sense that
it
advocates certain recent fashions which
aim
tions of doubtful value.
mathematics by applicaWhile admitting that a certain amount of applied work is very useful and interesting,
to replace the true study of
the author does not believe that the true value of
mathematical
study
lies
in
its
practical
utility,
and
hence cannot admit that the mensuration of parquet
PREFACE
floors or the construction of
Vll
window designs forms the
true end of mathematical study. In addition to the purely pedagogical discussions, this
volume contains certain topics in pure mathematics which, on account of their bearing upon teaching, should be familiar to every teacher. These topics relate principally to the modes of attack (Chapter XV), but also to the foundations of mathematics (Chapter V), to the division of the circle (Chapter XVI), and to a These chapters may be omitted few other subjects.
when
a rapid survey of the purely pedagogic matters

this
is
desired.
Like any other pedagogic book,
volume must
necessarily contain a great deal that is obvious and commonplace to the experienced teacher. But to write for
the latter only would
mean
to
make
this
book useless
for the prospective teacher to whom the study of mathematical pedagogy is most important.
The
to Dr.
author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness Joseph Kahn and Mr. W. S. Schlauch for the
careful reading of the proofs
and
for
many
valuable
suggestions.
ARTHUR SCHULTZE.
NEW
YORK,
June, 1912.
CONTENTS
>
CHAPTER
PAGES
CAUSES OF THE INEFFICIENCY OF MATHEMATICAL TEACHING

Small efficiency of secondary schools Present conditions Remedies proposed
1-14
I
. Shortcomings of our schools Causes of the inefficiency of our schools
The
overrating of spectacular results
Examinations
Congested courses of study Two ways of studying Schools encourage memorizing

Star students
Effects of the general conditions
....... ....... .... .... ........ ...... ........

.
. .
.
.
I I
6
6
7 7
9
lo
12
upon mathematical teach13
ing
CHAPTER II THE VALUE AND THE AIMS OF MATHEMATICAL

TEACHING
The
practical value of mathematics Classification of advantages
.
15-29
.
.15
15
Importance
Influence
in science
life
.15
17
.
.
.
upon
Value
to the individual
The
disciplinary value of mathematics
General remarks
Simplicity
.17 .18 .18

19
ix
CONTENTS
PACKS
Accuracy
Certainty of results
Originality
Similarity to the reasoning of daily
life
.
.
20
20
21
21
Bulk of work
Denial of all
reasoning mental discipline

.
*
,
in
23
Minor functions of mathematical study

Concentration
Constructive imagination
24 26 26
27 27
Mental
self-reliance
Development of character
Ability to use the mother-tongue
....
27 28
28
General culture
Summary
Fundamental principle
......
III
.
.
28
29
CHAPTER
Classification of
METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS

methods
30-49
30
The
and the analytic methods Description of methods

synthetic
....
.
.
30 30
31
Examples
The
inductive aad the deductive methods
37
37
Description
Facts discovered by induction Deductive and inductive sequence
....
.
.
37
Value of the two methods
39 40
41
41
The dogmatic and the psychological methods The dogmatic method The psychologic method
Rigor
42
.43
and the
heuristic
The
lecture
methods
43 43
The The
lecture
method
method
heuristic
44
CONTENTS
PACKS
The
laboratory
method
Description
..
47
47
Good
features
48
.
Weak
features
48
Summary
49
CHAPTER IV THE FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

The axioms of geometry The bases of geometry
Philosophic aspects
50-65
50
......
.
.
50
51
Non-Euclidean geometry and the axioms

Euclid's postulate
52
52
Lobatschewsky's geometry Riemann's geometry
53
Modern views of geometric axioms Summary of consequences

Other geometries
....
.
54
56
57
58
The fundamental laws The laws The realistic view The formal view
Conclusion
of algebra
59 59
61
62
63 63
Comparison of the two views

Pedagogic conclusions
.
64
CHAPTER V
DEFINITIONS
Logical aspects of definitions
66-7
66
a definition?
errors
What
is
66
67 68
Common
Line
Difficulties
69
CONTENTS
PAGES
Angle
Plane
Surface
70
71
71
Pedagogic aspect of definitions

Pedagogic value
72
A
The
an explanation Familiarity with technical terms

definition not
.... ....
... ...
72
73
74
75 75
teaching of the introductory definition General remarks

Surfaces and lines
.76
77 77
Angle
Familiarizing the student with terms
Numerical exercises
77 82
Drawing
exercises
Laboratory exercises Further illustrations of teaching definitions
83
85 85
Angles formed by parallels

Projections
........
CHAPTER
VI
.
86
THE FIRST PROPOSITIONS IN GEOMETRY

Peculiarities of these propositions
88-97 88
88
The
Effect
preliminary propositions
Usual mode of presentation
.....
89
92
upon the student

start
Wrong
Effect
92
93 93
Loss of interest
upon mode of study Importance of proper initiation

.
94
Rational methods of presentation
94
.
Theorems
Exercises
94
95
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
General remarks
VII
PAGES
.
THE ORIGINAL EXERCISE IN GEOMETRY

Book
proposition or original exercise ?
.
98-112
98
.98
99
99
.
.
Importance of the exercise

Original thinking
Exercises form best introduction

Interest
100
101
Grading
Conclusion
........
.
101
103
The
teaching of original exercises Prerequisite on part of the teacher
104
.
.
.104
104
105
Mode of procedure Construction of exercises

Graphic methods
for presenting facts
.
Iio
CHAPTER
EQUALITY OF TRIANGLES
The
first
VIII
"3-139
.
two propositions . . Can superposition be avoided ?.
113
-113
.
The
Originals
study of superposition
113
.114
114
^115
exercises
.
General remarks
Method I Method of constructing

List of exercises
115
117
Method
II
127
Importance of these exercises . Conventional methods of stating proofs
.129
129
Symbols or words
.129
.
Symbols of uncertain significance

Statement of the hypothesis Statement a proof
.
130
132 133
XIV
CONTENTS
PACKS
The
last three propositions
133
.
.
.
Remarks
Exercises
...
CHAPTER
IX
133
135
135
Method III Method IV
138
PARALLEL LINES
Propositions
.......
.
140-151
.140
140
Definition of parallel lines
Demonstration of the fundamental theorem

Exercises
.140
142 143 143
Method
Converses
General laws
. Pedagogic value of laws . Converses of theorems on parallels
143
.
147
147 148
Exercises
Sum
of the angles of a triangle
151
CHAPTER X
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS OF THE FIRST BOOK OF
GEOMETRY
Isosceles triangle
......
*
152-172
152
Hypothetical constructions
.
.
.
.152
.
Hypothetical construction
Applications
153 155
Method VI
Simple constructions
.
156
.
.
.
. . .
.156
.
Straight-edge and compasses Pedagogic remarks
156
.158
.
Unequal
lines
and angles
159
CONTENTS
XV
VAGES
Proofs
Applications
.
159
162
Difficult originals
163
Polygons
Positive
167
and negative quantities
.167
170
171
<
Remarks on two theorems

Exercises
5
CHAPTER
Typical methods Method VII
XI
.
METHODS OF ATTACKING THEOREMS
173-179
173 173
Method VIII
Attacking a theorem as a problem
.
174
.
.178
CHAPTER
THE CIRCLE
Regular propositions
Circle or circumference?
First propositions
.
XII
180-187 180
180
Analysis of some theorems

Generalizations
.181 .182
?H84
186
Exercises
CHAPTER
LIMITS
Dogmatic treatment
Rational treatment
XIII
188-196
188
The incommensurable
Length of a curve
General suggestions
.
case
.189 .189
lof
.
195
Xvi
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XIV
PAGES
THE THIRD BOOK OF GEOMETRY

Theorems
relating to proportions . Ratio and proportion Remarks on certain theorems
.
.
.
>
.
,
197-216
.
.
.
.
197
*
.
.
197
Exercises
.........
,
.198
200
Simple exercises
Construction of exercises
Difficult exercises
.
200
202
Metrical relations
204 206
Propositions
.
.
206
The Pythagorean theorem

Analyses Use of disected lines
206
207 208
Use
of formulae
.......
.
.
209
211
Unnecessary
Projections
corollaries
212
.
.
.
Angle and projection

Construction of exercises
.213 .214
CHAPTER XV
METHODS OF ATTACKING PROBLEMS

Loci
Scientific aspect
217-256
217
217
.
Pedagogic aspect
General remarks
Putting given parts together
...... .......
.
.221
225
225
Fundamental constructions of triangles

Geometric analysis of simple problems General description
. .
226
228
A concrete illustration
Discussion of details
...... ......
.
228
229 229
233
Geometric analysis of
difficult
problems
CONTENTS
XV11
PAGES
Determining the known parts
233
The drawing
Translation
of additional lines
239
239
Rotation about a point Rotation about a line

Special devices
.241
243
245
Method
of similarity
Multiplication of curves
Multiplication
and rotation
Algebraic analysis
...... ........
CHAPTER XVI
REGULAR
245
247
251
254
IMPOSSIBLE
CONSTRUCTIONS POLYGONS
257-265
257
Impossible constructions General principles
Three famous problems

Regular polygons
......
. .
257
Approximate constructions of v
Division of a circumference
258 260
261 261
Concrete examples Constructive angles
263
265
CHAPTER
Purpose and
difficulties
.
XVII
.
SOME REMARKS ON SOLID GEOMETRY

Peculiarities of solid
Difficulties
266-278 266
.
geometry
266
267 268
Models
Function of models
........
?
268
Kind of model needed

Drawings Photos or drawings
269
269
269
xviii
CONTENTS
PACKS
Perspective or projection
270
272
Oblique projection
Use
of cross-section paper
rules for
Minor
drawing
......
.
272
275
CHAPTER
APPLIED PROBLEMS
Practical
XVIII
379-287
.
and
scientific applications
Moderate views
279 280
281
The extreme view

Conclusion
Reasons against the extreme view

Sources of applied problems
....
282
.....
284
284
CHAPTER XIX
THE CURRICULUM IN ALGEBRA
Introductory remarks
When
What
Algebra and geometry compared should algebra be studied

algebra should be studied?
.... ....... ....

?
.
388-301 288
288
289
291
General remarks
Reduction of formal work

Reduction of theory Short cuts
Cultivation of the reasoning power
Applicable topics General maxims
...... ....... .... ....... .......

....
291
292
295
296 299 299
500
CHAPTER XX
TYPICAL PARTS OF ALGEBRA
Introductory subjects The first lessons
.
302-352
302
.......
302
CONTENTS
XD
PAGES
Negative numbers Numerical substitution

Addition and subtraction
Addition
Subtraction
302
......
.
.
.
304
307
307
.
308
Signs of aggregation
Multiplication
309
309
309
312
Rule of signs Law of no exception

Factoring
314
to study factoring
. .
.
.
When
What
314
315
cases should be studied

.
Factoring
Superfluous cases ax -f bx
11
.316
318
Difficult cases
320
Equations and problems

Identities
and equations
Equivalent equations
Quadratic equations
...... ...... .......

graphs
324
324
326
328
Applied problems
330 332
332
333
Graphs Reasons
for teaching
Introductory examples Graphs of functions
Graphic solution of problems

Purely graphic methods
Irrational
and complex numbers What are irrational numbers

Imaginary numbers
The
teaching of imaginaries
....... ...... ....... .....

?
334
335
338
344
344
346
348
349
349
Logarithms
Theory
Logarithmic calculations
......
350
XX
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXI
?AGKS
THE TEACHING OF TRIGONOMETRY

General remarks
Peculiarities of the subject
Courses in trigonometry
Definitions
........ ......
.
353-367
353 353
354
356
Typical parts of trigonometry
356
357
Right triangle Expressing one function in terms of another

Identities
. .
.361
.
,
362 363
365
Functions of angles greater than 90 Inverse trigonometric functions
THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS SECONDARY SCHOOLS

CHAPTER
I
IN
CAUSES OF THE INEFFICIENCY OF MATHEMATICAL TEACHING
LOW EFFICIENCY OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The present condition
of
The widespread reform movement
mathematical teaching. for improving the
teaching of mathematics, and the increasing interest of teachers in the pedagogy of this subject, seem to be largely due to a general dissatisfaction with the results
of mathematical instruction.
in
gogic progress, spite our teachers, these results_are in general unsatisfactory. Although the apparent results as measured by examinations are often excellent,
of
For, in^pite of our pedathe strenuous efforts of
they are usually not lasting. the spirit of the subject, and are grasp otten utterly unable to apply their knowledge to advanced work or to practical problems. All who have
Students
fail to
had an opportunity
to test the true
mathematical
train-
ing of the average student a short time after his graduation agree that this training is exceedingly slight.
The conviction that the teachRemedies proposed. of mathematics is greatly injrieed[ of reform, seems ing to be almost general, and only when it comes to a dis-
evil,
cussion of the causes of the
and the remedies that
should be applied, does a great diversity of opinion

appear.
"
Mathematics has outlived
its
usefulness as a subject
of secondary school instruction." from life to interest the student."
"There
"lJLs_too remote is no such
thing as mental discipline, hence mathematical teaching has no value," etc. Such are the arguments proposed
by men who dislike mathematics, who possibly never had a full understanding of the nature of the subject,
and who consequently wish to replace it by some of pet subjects, such as economics or psychology.
"
their
It is all the fault of the teachers who do not carry out the excellent plans of their superiors, and who do not make students work enough," is an opinion occa-
sionally expressed
cipals.
by school superintendents and
prin-
School mathematics must be made more rigorous/ argues a group of teachers. fortunately decreasing
"
If the
"
fundamental notions of
limits
and incommen-
surable
numbers were taught in ^scientific manner, and the slipshod method of assuming things that can be
proved were discontinued, then every graduate would understand mathematics, and we would no longer hear
that Vtf 2 -f &* equals a -f 6."
But aside from these laymen or hobby-riding enthusiasts, nearly all teachers of mathematics try to find
remedies for the present unsatisfactory conditions, and
the cure
tion
recommended by most
of
them
is
the introduc-
and study of the applications, along with the pure
CAUSES OF THE INEFFICIENCY

science.
teach applications and pure mathematics side by side, make the pure mathematics grow out of its applications, and elimi-
Apply mathematics, they
tell us,
nate,
as
far
as possible, those parts_of_a]gebra and
geometry that have no immediate practical Jê&li&S*
Undoubtedly the general recognition of the fact that the concrete must precede the abstract, and that a great
deal of the time-honored mathematical subject matter
has but small value, means a great advance in matheIt seems doubtful, however, whether one principle, even if it could be carried out completely, would be sufficient to improve matters thorIt is even doubtful whether under the present oughly.
matical pedagogy.*
this
conditions any change in the subject matter taught could produce a considerable betterment for the inefficiency
;
not confined to mathematics, but appears in nearly all other subjects. The average student within a short time forgets so much of his history, physics, or
of teaching
is
it is no exaggeration to say that his permanent knowledge falls far short of the amount studied and the grades attained in examinations. Hence the in-
economics, that
efficiency of
to the selection of the
mathematical teaching cannot be due mainly mathematical subject matter it

;
must be due
to the
same general causes that are

any subject.
at
work
in the teaching of
In other words, it seems to the author that we have to deal here not with a local, but with a constitutional,
disease, and tHat only an analysis of the general causes that are responsible for the failure of our schools to
*For
further discussion of the
movement, see Chapter XVIII.
any
light
attain their highest efficiency can shed
upon
the problem.
In spite of the undeniably great progress in educational practice during the past decades, a large and increasing number of facts seem to indicate that the results obtained in our schools
Shortcomings
of our schools.
are not in proportion to the time and labor expended by

pupils
and teachers.
While
theoretical
pedagogues
speak with pride of our modern schools, all unprejudiced persons who have had the opportunity to test the lasting
and true knowledge of graduates are rather skeptical

about the excellence of these schools.
complain that
secure boys
it
seems
to
be harder
who can
spell correctly,
Business men now than ever to and who know the

in
fundamentals of arithmetic.
complain that
Teachers
high schools
many pupils entering these institutions know very little about grammar school subjects, in spite of their former high examination marks. College
teachers are equally dissatisfied with the average results In most comments by the of high school training. press there is an undercurrent of dissatisfaction with
the results
.of
our schools.
to ridicule
While many educators try
such statements
and to brand them as gross exaggerations, nobody who has come in personal contact with the students and
graduates of our schools can deny that these complaints are well founded. Most^ students forget,. not only the
min^r and unessential facts, but the most fundamental, the most necessary ones, so completely that the returns for time and labor snent seem to be whollv inadeauate.
One may suppose

our schools
is
the knowledge acquired in inadequate, possibly the gain in mental

that
if
power makes up
due
for this shortcoming.
But
in this re-
spect also the gain is exceedingly small, and principally to the natural growth of the individual, and not to
severe study. Everybody who has had the opportunity to observe young people in their school work cannot
have
failed to notice the very small use they
make
of
their reasoning power.
Not that most students do not
clined to use
possess the necessary intelligence, but they are disinit, and they do not seem to be aware of
is
is
the fact that reasoning
often a better
means
for
obtaining an answer than of words.
the thoughtless repetition
The
ture
only marked gain
and refinement.
the gain in general culThis is due, however, not to

is
the hard study jind cramming, but to the general atmosphere of a school for the lazy student will ac;
Wherever we quire it equally with the hardest worker. search we fail to find a result that entirely justifies
the exceedingly hard work and the intense strain to which a high school student is subjected for a term of
four years.
For great indeed

people
those
is
the strain to which the
young
all
who
are conscientious and
do
the
work required
are subjected, especially in the public
educational institutions of our large cities. It is not at all exceptional for high school girls, eighteen or nine-
teen years old, after more than five hours daily work in school, to spend four or five hours in the preparation
home lessons, sitting up late every school night with practically no out-of-door exercise.* Considering the lasting results only, and not the misof their
leading examination results,
it
that an average secondary school
can hardly be maintained is an efficient machine.
It is no exaggeration to say that a fairly intelligent student could get as much culture and true education as a high school graduate by working with an efficient in-
structor
two or three hours daily for a term of four years;
although it must be admitted that such a student might not be able to attain spectacular examination results. f
CAUSES OF THE INEFFICIENCY OF OUR SCHOOLS

The overrating
of
spectacular results.
Unquestion-
ably there are a large

ciency of our schools.
number of causes for the ineffiParamount among these causes,
however, seems to be the fact that schools are freTrue quently conducted on the spectacular plan.
results are not sufficiently appreciated;
it is '^show" and appearance that often are principally aimed at Undue striving j^>rêx^mmaîQiLXSsu|ts, crowded courses
and faulty modes of study, promotion of absolutely unfit students, slight appreciation of good
of study, unnatural
*
Every teacher knows that there are a great many pupils who do
not work hard because they do not do the required amount of study. There are pupils who, relying upon luck, the help of others, cheating,
etc.,
manage to make their way through school. This unfortunate fact, however, can hardly be used in defense of present conditions. t This inefficiency of the high schools seems to be fully equaled, if not
work
surpassed, by that of the last years of grammar school, while the In the more elementary classes appears to be more efficient.
teaching, are all caused by this desire to produce measurable results that impress the outside world.
Examinations.
So much has been written on the
ill
effects of giving too

it
muchjraght
to examinations, that
is
hardly necessary to discuss this point in

Suffice
it
minute
detail.
to say that
we
all
admit that some
examinations are necessary, but that ill effects will arise as soon as examinations become thg central fact in
school_lif eA and especially
tive character.
when they assume

of the
a competias indica-
As gauges
work done,
tors of the efficiency of a particular school, they are
unreliable.
While exceedingly low examination
results
may
indicate defects, an unusually high average does

all
not at
indicate efficiency of a school, but
more often
Such high examination percentages frequently indicate the employment of wrong methods of teaching and the abuse of both pupil and teacher. The
the opposite.
fact that examinations are not proper
gauges of the
all
quality of a school has long been recognized in nearly

civilized
countries, and hence most of them have
at-
tempted to diminish the importance of examinations. Even China has followed their lead and reduced the
large
number
of
its
examinations.
In the United States
the teachers as a class are also opposed to the abuse of examinations, but unfortunately those in power fre-
quently think otherwise, and consequently the examination evil has been growing.
It is characteristic of Congested courses of study. our times that most people consume far more mental food than they can assimilate. It is nothing unusual
for an educated person to read four novels and
magazines a month, to see a play every week, to
many make
frequent visits to concerts, lectures, and art exhibitions, and to devote hours every day to newspaper reading.
Everything
in
is
done
ing impression.
a hurry, and nothing leaves a last" " JRorne is done in a day, the Louvre
in
is
two hours.
There
no time
to think,,
no time to
meditate about any of these matters, and general superficiality and mental flabbiness are the result.
One would
expect the schools to exert a wholesome
influence in opposition to this ever growing shallowness.
But far from it they are the worst offenders. In their anxiety to secure spectacular results, they compel their pupils to do an enormous amount of work in a given
;
time
result.
so much, indeed, that haste and superficiality must There are schools that finish the whole of
plane geometry^Jn jsixjiionths, and are proud of this feat. There is more taught in many high schools during four
years than the average
eight.
It is not at all exceptional that a high school student has to master in one evening ten to fifteen pages of
human mind can
assimilate in
pages of geometry, and equally long lessons in two or three other subjects; and this cramming prohistory, four
cess goes on day after day, year after year. Can any human mind properly assimilate all this material ? And
do students really accumulate " mental

claims, or
is
fat," as
Spencer
all
not the result in 96 per cent of
cases
chronic mental indigestion, i.e., utter inability to assimilate anv mental food properly ? For frequently this
work
is
done quite mechanically without bringing into

^Students
play any of the higher powers of the mind. simply memorize and usually do not even
there are other ways
know
that
than memorizing for acquiring
knowledge.
Two ways
of
studying.
There are two ways
of
One person who wishes to study studying new facts. a new topic will read over the text again and again,
until the
mind and he can readily Another person repeat any part of the subject involved. will read little, but will meditate upon the subject. He will try to associate the unknown with the known; will
words cling
to his
attempt to solve, as far as possible unaided,
all
problems
involved, and hence he will look at the subject from all sides. Such a judicious mode of studying is a far
slower process than memorizing, but
it
leads to lasting
understanding and true knowledge of the subThe first method, memorizing, is a perfectly ject proper method for the most elementary things, but leads
full
and
to absolutely
no results
in the
more advanced
be
it
subjects.
The
multiplication table,
of
words
can
but
of a foreign language,
fully
is
spelling
words,
etc.,
mastered
to
by
mechanical
memorizing, geometry, physics, or philosophical same manner.
absurd
subjects
in
study the
_M_ost students are familiar only with the first
method.
childish
They never go through

memorizing
ity to
the transition from
to judicious study.
However, by
their abil-
repeat words, they often deceive others and themselves into the belief that they have mastered their
10
studies.
The
is
deceptive character of knowledge thus
acquired
is lost.
demonstrated by the rapidity with which it In a very short time everything studied, essenunessential, utterly fades away.
tial
and
On
the other
*iand, the person
who
studies judiciously receives such
a strong impression of the essentials, that he rarely forgets, and even if he does, he can frequently reconstruct the missing data. His previous thinking has
given him a strong framework of facts, upon which all minor data are readily assembled.
Schools encourage memorizing and neglect reasoning.
In the preceding paragraph it was pointed out that mechanical memorizing is a perfectly proper method of
studying the most elementary, the most fundamental
facts,
which are of frequent application.*
This
is
possi-
bly the reason
why
the teaching
the lower grades than later on. the very nature of the subjects
ineffective.
more effective in In more advanced work makes mere memorizing

is
far
schools, however, not only encourage memprizing, but sometimes almost force the student to adopt this as the only mode of study, for only by memorizing
Our high
can he hope to satisfy the immediate demands of the

school.
The
to
daily rations of mental food that the student has

is
swallow give him no choice; there
no time for
* Such subjects, however, must.be made so familiar to students by

frequent repetition that forgetting becomes almost impossible. In many schools, topics of this kind, however, are treated just as hastily as everything else; hence memorizing even in its legitimate place is rendered
ineffective.

;
II
he must thought, for meditation, for judicious study memorize. Moreover, the character of the studies leads
him
to mechanical work, for in spite of the vigorous of
denials
our pedagogues, the greater part of the curriculum is informational. It is knowledge and not
emphasized in most of the studies, and even subjects which by their very nature should be mastered by thinking are often made informational.
power that
is
For the informational method produces much quicker and more spectacular results than the slow judicious
mode
of
study.
What
if
a fine
display
of
learning
students can
scientiously
!
make
How
?
they have been cramming conhigh the percentage they can

!
secure in examinations
True, the after effects are sad,
but
long as the boy can talk glibly about complex economic problems in terms which he does not understand, we are satisfied. What does it
cares
who
As
matter, that a year later he has not the remotest inkling of the subject, that he cannot discuss intelligently the
simplest
new problem that may arise Can we wonder that under such
!
conditions
the
student never breaks away from his mechanical way of studying that he acquired in the elementary school?
And
can we wonder,
too, that the results of
our teach-
ing become inferior in the higher grades of the grammar school, and especially so in the high school ?
This excessive use of memorizing^ and the neglect of the cultivation of the reasoning power, are possibly the worst effects of the spectacular idea upon which our
schools are largely built.
12
Star students.
It
must be admitted that there
is
small group of students who possess memories of extraor-
dinary retentive power,
who can memorize and
retain
anything from geometry to metaphysics. Notwithstand" " ing the mental fat that such students accumulate, they
ought to be pitied, for they rarely cultivate their higher mental powers. To them memory is such a convenient
tool, that it is
used almost exclusively, while the other
faculties of the
come
Such people rarely beare without originality, they do not thinkers, they
mind atrophy.
In school, however, produce, but only re-produce, ideas. of this class excel they are the star students, the pupils
;
pride of their teachers and parents. Perhaps this is the reason why star students so seldom
the expectations of their friends. They hardly ever excel in the ordinary pursuits of life, or become
fulfill
able scholars.
Frequently, however, their apparent success in studying leads them into the teaching profession,
and they then expect every individual to possess the same freakish memory which they have. Such men, especially if thoy reach the higher positions, usually do
all in
their
power
to intensify the
cramming conditions
of our schools.
On
the other hand, students of great ability have
sometimes poor memories for words and are therefore

regarded as hopeles^jdujnces_by^ their teachers. There is no lack of examples of great men wjip were considered
X<pry dull
boys by their teachers, simply because they 4?^ Jl?t. J??ls ess that parrot quality ^which is so highly appreciated in school
,
13
chief stand-
The
absurdity of
making the memory the
ard for measuring a student's ability cannot be over-
emphasized. Which is more useful to a person in life, the knowledge of a great many facts, or mental power ?
the ability to repeat other people's thoughts, or the ability to think for himself ?
EFFECTS OF THE GENERAL CONDITIONS UPON MATHEMATICAL TEACHING

In view of the conditions in
ary schools,
it is
many primary and
second-
not surprising that mathematical teach-
ing produces poor results. The entire atmosphere of some schools is so opposed to the true mathematical
spirit that true teaching and true studying of the subject In many schools good matheare almost impossible. matical teaching is not understood, not appreciated, not
wanted by the authorities
while the
fictitious
but showy
results of the drillmaster are highly
commended.
Take,
in addition, the lack of time, the preparation for difficult
examinations, the poor preparation of the students, their firmly rooted habits of memorizing, and their mental inertia
due
to years of
be surprised that teachers
mechanical work, and we cannot against their better knowlInstead of real

is
use faulty methods of teaching. edge mathematical work, a cramming process

is
employed that
;
not only useless, but positively harmful to the students for mathematics taught as an informational subject is
exceedingly tiresome and injurious to the mind. No other subject suffers so much and becomes so
valueless as mathematics,
when
treated
by mechanical
14
of study; and,
modes
on the other hand, no other second*
ary school subject is so admirably adapted to a judicious mode of study as mathematics. In fact, this characteristic
constitutes one of the chief values of this study,
and
must be constantly considered to determine the aims and methods of mathematical teaching.
when we wish
CHAPTER
TEACHING
II
THE VALUE AND THE AIMS OF MATHEMATICAL
THE PRACTICAL VALUE OF MATHEMATICS

Classification of the
ing.
advantages of mathematical teachIn order to determine with precision the meth-
ods of teaching any subject, it is necessary to arrive at a clear understanding of the reasons for teaching it. This inquiry is particularly important in mathematics,
and pedagogical advantages of this study from those of most other subjects. The many reasons that may be given foi; teaching mathematics are usually classified under two heads, viz.: those based upon (i) the practical value of mathesince the aims
differ widely
matics, or (2) the- culture it imparts. The practical value of mathematics

is
is very great. It indeed no exaggeration to assert that our whole
modern
civilization
owes
its
peculiar stamp indirectly to

life
mathematics.
Modern thought and modern
owe
their character to the great progress of the exact sciejxges,
and to the wonderful development of the technical arts. These two in turn are closely connected with, and based
upon, mathematics. science Importance of mathematics in science. becomes exact, when it advances from the formation
of
mere
qualitative relations to quantitative laws,

15
and
16
tions.
thereby becomes accessible to mathematical investigaHence fent s&id, "A science is exact only in
so far as
it
employs mathematics."
The knowledge
of
the deflection of
medium
into another of different density
a ray of light entering from one was of small
value until the quantitative law of refraction was discovered. Thereby all problems of dioptrics became
mathematical problems, and the entire art of making optical instruments was put upon an exact scientific
basis.
Similarly the discovery of the laws of motion and the
law of gravitation transformed all problems of celestial mechanics into problems of mathematics, and, owing to
the exactness of mathematics, this branch of astronomy
in a short time reached an amazing degree of perfection. Astronomy and physics are the most exact sciences,
and hence are the best illustrations of the usefulness of mathematics. But chemistry and geology, economics and
Even psychology, if physiology, all use mathematics. the Weber- Fechner law, cannot dispense with accepts the help of mathematics.
it
Mathematical knowledge
derstanding of the
indispensable for the unphenomena of nature, and no one

i$
without mathematical scholarship can hope to advance far as an investigator in most of the exact sciences.*
* The most useful of
tions, since
all
mathematical devices are Differential equa-
almost any branch of physical science leads to these.

is
The
state of a physical system
immediately preceding
tial
it,
the absolute consequence of the state a relation that necessarily leads to a differenof differential equations
is
equation.
The symbolism
better adapted
is
to represent the fundamental
phenomena
of
nature than
any other
VALUE AND AIM

Influence of mathematics upon
of machines*
life.
This
is
The production and
distribution of every
necessity or luxury partly depend upon the technical sciences which owe their perfection to their exact mathe-
matical basis.
" "
Our
and
entire present
it
civilization," says
intellecits
Professor Voss,
tual penetration
as far as
depends upon the

has
utilization of nature,
real
foundation in the mathematical sciences."

ing,
Engineer-
architecture,
navigation,
railroad
building,
and
surveying are more or less based upon mathematical

foundations.
Moreover, this influence of the exact sciences, and hence of mathematics, is increasing so rapidly that a
nation which would base
its
industries
upon purely
empirical rules, to the exclusion of scientific methbds,
would be hopelessly handicapped, and left behind in the struggle for commercial and industrial supremacy.
of mathematical knowledge to. the individual. would be an error to infer, from the great usefulness of mathematics to our civilization, an equal practi-
Value
It
These symbols not only enable us to state laws which otherwise all, but they often make it possible to express relations between physical quantities whose true inward nature is enFresnel's theory of light, which attributes light to tirely unknown.
means.
could not be stated at
movements
satisfactory
of the ether, leads to differential equations
which give a
explanation of most optical phenomena.
physicists accept Maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of

this theory has
To-day most But while light.
changed our notions
of the physical nature of light, it
FresnePs differential equation unaltered. Mechanical explanations of the phenomena change, but the differential equations remain
has
left
unaltered. Differential equations are such powerful instruments for exact physical investigations, that we can understand Riemann's saying : " Exact science exists since the discovery of differential equations."
18
cal usefulness^ to every individual.
The percentage
ot
are likely to have practical use for matheafter leaving school or college, is certainly small. matics,
students
who
The
majority of business or professional callings require
no algebra, geometry, or trigonometry, and even the professions which use these subjects do so to a much
generally supposed. There are and engineers who make their navigators, surveyors, calculations in an almost mechanical manner, without having perfectly clear notions of the underlying mathesmaller extent than
is
matical principles.
Only
for those
few men who beis
come
original
designers
and
investigators
true
Still,
mathematical
skill
and knowledge indispensable.
mathematics has some practical value for all students, and even to an extent greater than many other high
school subjects.
If
mathematics, however, had no value as a mental
discipline, its teaching in the
secondary schools could hardly be justified solely on grounds of its bread-and-
butter value.
THE DISCIPLINARY VALUE OF MATHEMATICS

General remarks.
ical
The
principal value of mathematfact that

it
study arises
from the
exercises the rea-
soning power more, and claims from the memory less, than any other secondary school subject. The study of mathematics should result in the development of power,
rather than in the acquisition of facts. Not he who knows a great many mathematical facts is a good mathematician, but he
who can apply
these facts intelligently,
VALUE AND AIM
19
who can
It
is
discover facts that are
new
to him,
and who
can reconstruct those which he has forgotten.

true test of mathematical ability, and
power and not knowledge that furnishes the if the power is acwill the knowledge foland only then quired, then
Mathematical instrucor rather should be
low as a natural consequence.

tion in a secondary school is
principally a systematic training in reasoning, an imparting of information.
and not
Of
course similar claims are
made
for nearly all other
subjects, but a closer inquiry will
show
that for math-
The reasoning in ematics they are really justified. mathematical work is of a peculiar kind, possessing
characteristics that
make
it
especially fitted for training

of these characteristics
the minds of the students.

are the following
1.
:
Some
Simplicity.
2.
3.
Accuracy.
Certainty of results.
Originality.
4.
5.
Similarity to the reasoning of life.
6.
Amount of reasoning.
It is a
Simplicity.
well-known principle of physical
training that too severe exercises are not only useless, but often harmful to the beginners. Similarly, simple
mental exercises are much better adapted to the training of the mind of the young, than very hard ones. Mathematics allows an almost perfect grading, commencing
with exceedingly simple work, and leading the student
2O
to harder
by degrees
and harder problems.
It is diffi<
cult, for instance, to
imagine anything easier than the
To prove, let us say, the equality of two triangles, the student has to examine
simplest exercises in geometry.
six pairs of
homologous
r
parts,
and
to try to find reasons
for the equality of three of them.
And how
simple
these reasons are
The
hypothesis, an axiom, or one of
of the 4 or 5 preceding theorems. How perfectly definite the given facts, the method, and the required result! How few given data the student has to keep in mind,
and how few

the reasons
!
facts he has to
know
in order to discover
Contrast with this the reasoning necessary
for writing an
argument
in English,
multiplicity of
known
facts, indefinite character of the
given data and
methods
to
be used, uncertainty of
results.
Accuracy. Every teacher knows how many students lack precision of thought and expression, how many
are unable, or do not try, to understand the precise
meaning of a
question,
how many speak

it
before even
attempting to think.
While
seems that students can
get along fairly well in other subjects with such methods, they cannot do so in. mathematics. Iji this subject,
the mere repetition of words or phrases will not hide the ignorance of the pupil The student must think accuratelyTlie has to speak accurately, to master mathematics.
work
Certainty of results. Any piece of mathematical is either right or wrong, and it is usually a very simple matter to find out whether or not it is right
Certainly there can be no difference of opinion between
VALUE AND AIM

student and teacher as to the final result.
21
student
who has discovered a geometric original, or has solved an algebraic problem, and verified his answer, knows that he is right, and therefore is conscious of having accomplished something. This sensation of having definitely overcome a difficulty is to the normal pupil a
source of pleasure, a pleasure which increases with the conquered difficulty. Compare with this the reasoning a student has to do in a philosophical, political, or eco-
nomic
subject.
After the expenditure of
much time and
labor, there follows uncertainty of result, possible differ-
ence of opinion between teacher and pupil, perhaps even a disagreement of the accepted authorities. Mathematical reasoning done by stuOriginality.
dents
is
entirely original thinking,
and not the reproThis cannot
duction of ideas previously heard or read.
be said of other school subjects that claim to appeal Thus, a mainly to the student's reasoning power. student may apparently reason ably in working out an
economic problem, while actually the bulk of

is
his
answer
taken
memory.
consciously or Topics of such
his unconsciously general character are dis-
from
cussed so frequently in daily papers, magazines, books, and in the family circle, that he who has most opportunities in this direction, or
he who has the best memory,
is
often considered a good thinker, although he

dull-witted person.
may
be a
Similarity to the reasoning of daily
life.
While no-
body questions the value of mathematical training for scientific work and rigid logical deductions, it is often
22
is
asserted that mathematical thinking ferent order from the kind used in
of an entirely difaffairs,
human
and
that consequently mathematical training has no practical

value.
It is
tivated
undoubtedly true that the mental qualities culby mathematical study alone are not sufficient to
;
insure ability for solving practical problems but on the other hand, it is evident that without these qualities one
can hardly hope for success

life
in the affairs of life.
Clear-
ness and exactness of thinking are just as necessary in

daily
as in mathematical study.
The person who undertakes an industrial or commercial venture must possess a clear idea of the existin other words, he ing conditions and of his aims, must have a firm grasp on the situation just as a student
;
in
mathematics has to recognize the hypothesis and the
conclusion.
Then
his
precisely as the student of geom-
etry
the business
at
man
;
has to consider the various
he has to examine each, to disposal eliminate those that are unfit, and to weigh and to
means
compare the
the
others. In all steps he must have a clear notion of the situation, of the means to be adopted, of
end to
be
reached.
Confusing
the
data
and
random guessing
sults
will produce in business no better rethan in mathematics.* More than one business
testified that
man
has
he owes his success
in life to the
habits of exact thinking which he
formed when study-
ing mathematics.
* For an elaborate presentation of this poinj| see Young's Teaching
of Mathematics.
VALUE AND AIM

Bulk
the
Is
23
of
mathematical work
is
reasoning.
Mathe-
matics appeals more to the reasoning power, and less to memory than any other higlTfcch'ool subject. This
particularly true of geometry.
Here
if
the subject reasoning.

require
angles,
is
properly taught The few facts to be
nearly everything
is
no
special
known are so palpable as to memorizing. The equality of vertical
the equality of equidistant chords, etc., are facts that can be remembered without cramming. Even more
complex propositions, by constant application, soon beAfter proper training in exercise work, the regular propositions soon become natural consequences of general methods not
reasoning.
to
come familiar The rest is
to the student.
or should be
be memorized, but to be discovered, and to be
re-
constructed
when
forgotten.
Algebra does not make quite so good a showing

as geometry. But if its purely formal, manipulative features are not extended farther than necessary for
future work, very few facts have to be
remembered
in
algebra, incomparably fewer than in Latin, history, or French. Moreover, these facts are connected logiif forgotten, a thing a language or other informagenerally impossible in
cally
and can be reconstructed
tional subject.
must be admitted that some of the thinking of elementary algebra is of the same inferior order as While
it
that used in the study of Latin or Greek, namely, the mechanical application of a known rule, this is not true There is a large field for good original of all the work.
24
in
thinking in the work on reading problems and
formal
work
of
more advanced
character.
Under Every normal youth can study mathematics. fair conditions every normal pupil can easily comprehend the simple reasoning of mathematics, provided the subject is presented properly, and provided his mind has not been thoroughly dulled by an excess of
mechanical study. The small minority that really cannot understand mathematics under any condition does not consist of able pupils, and it is not likely that such
students
studies.
ics
as
is
sometimes asserted
excel in other
who
can a pupil excel in English or economfrequently uses his conclusion for his proof,
How
demonstrates his hypothesis, jumps at conclusions without plan or reason, and cannot concentrate his mind
upon anything, however simple
Elementary mathematics requires nothing but the plainest common sense; and the story of the special
brains needed for mathematics, as far as elementary
work
is
concerned,
all
is
a myth.
discipline.
Denial of
mental
is
Some
psychologists
dis-
claim that there
no such thing as general mental
cipline, that the disciplinary value pertains only to the
subject studied, or to one of similar content, and that consequently mathematical study increases the reason-
ing power for mathematics only. It cannot be denied that there

first
is
little
truth in the
part of this assertion, and that this theory has produced some reaction against the practice of defending " any pedagogical absurdity on grounds of mental dis-
VALUE AND AIM

cipline."
25
is
But on the other hand there

too
*
a tendency
among
to
the sensational pedagogues to exaggerate and
sweepingly. Qhology are not exact sciences.
generalize
Pedagogy and psy-
approximately true,
Their results are only and cannot be applied in the same

If
rigorous fashion as those of mathematics or physics.
we attempt
to
apply them to complex problems, the
limits of error are likely to
become so
large as to in-
Conclusions reached by such methods need constant verification, and must be modified
validate the entire results.
if
found to be contradictory
Precisely this thing
to experience.
in this
happens
discipline
theory,
teaching.
when we apply it mathematical teacher of experience Every

It
is
widely advertised to mathematical
has seen cases which disprove this theory.
common
experience to see a pupil in the upper grades

to the
of mathematics, and towards study in general. thereby change Pupils who were indifferent and apparently without
suddenly wake up
meaning
his attitude
ability
become
active
and
intelligent students, interested
and capable, not

studies.
only in
mathematics but
it
in
other
(These
studies,
however,
must be admitted,
question
is
are sciences, not languages.)
The
similar
it is
to that of the value of physical training
although
for the purBaseball playing may not be a direct preparation for a particular physical labor such as hod-carrying. Still a man who has strengthened his
this parallel suit of
no longer the fashion to use
some physical
labor.
body by
ball playing
would be
in a better position to
take
up such a
task,
than he
who has never
exercised at all
26
the negative evidence.
If this doctrine
Then we have
were
true,
the
harm done by unpedagogic
training
would not extend beyond the subject or subjects that caused it. But every day we see that the results caused
by bad training are general. The dullness acquired in some of our schools is absolutely general it relates to
;
any
subject, old or new.
In other words, one or several
subjects
subjects.
If
may
disqualify the student for the study of all
we should accept
of
mental caliber
study,
it
the theory that the general students is not improved by would undoubtedly be best to close all schools
the
after the fourth or fifth year of the
grammar
is
school,
since the knowledge gained afterwards

trouble.*
not worth the
MINOR FUNCTIONS OF MATHEMATICAL STUDY

Some
of the minor advantages of mathematical study be briefly stated as follows
:
may
i.
power of concentration. Very few young people seem to be able to concentrate their minds for even a few minutes upon one idea. This is a
Development
faculty,
of the
however, which can be acquired, and matheis
matical study
admirably adapted to develop
it.
* This theory of mental discipline is closely related to the physiologiThe latter theory cal theory of the localization of mental functions. " assumes that the mind consists of a number of independent faculties/ each of which has a definite localization in a region of the brain. These
1
views form the basis of phrenology, but they have been generally abandoned by physiologists. (See Loeb, Physiology of the Brain,
pp. 259-263.)
VALUE AND AIM

2.
27
Development
of the constructive imagination or the

-r
Far from being a dry science requiring pedantic accuracy and little imagination, true mathematical work consists in inventing, in finding someinventive faculty*
thing that
cess
is
is
unknown
to the
worker; and in
this, suc-
impossible without the use of the creative powers of the mind. Solving a geometric problem and making
an invention are very similar processes, the chief point

of difference being usually the greater simplicity of the
geometric problem.
difficult
is
To
the student, the solving of a

;
a discovery and consistent training problem in such work develops those faculties that lead to dis-
covery and invention. 3. Growth of mental
self-reliance.
Young
students,
as a rule, rely too much upon facts taken from books or some other authority, and too little upon their own faculties, a trait which shows that they have no confidence
in their
own mental powers.
Their former training has
led
them
to believe utterly in authority,
to think that all
and especially knowledge depends upon authority.
people retain through life the habit of placing authority above common sense and reason. Especially
in educational circles is this affliction very
4.
Some
common.
habits,
Development
of
character.
Mathematical study
trains the students
v^j^maJ^g^^Qrderly^
f
and
the pleasure connected with the successful conquering It has also of a difficulty stimulates thejze^
jJ0^r. been claimed that dealing with a subject that is absolutely true, that rejects and shows up any error, is bound
to increase respect for truthfulness
and honesty.
28
5.
difficulties
The Increased ability to use English correctly. which many students have in attempting to
own
ideas in their mother tongue are quite apparent in geometry, and on the other hand few subjects are so well suited as geometry for curing this evil.
express their
Geometric work possesses three qualities which are necessary for such work, viz. originality of the idea, simthe terminology, and comparative ease with which precision of expression can be reached. The
plicity of
ability to
difficult
is
understand English, especially of the rather

scientific or philosophical discussion,
kind used in
also greatly
improved by the study of mathematical

.
texts.
t
general acquaintance with the fundamental facts and methods of mathematics
6.
Increase
in
culture.^
An
seems
that
is
to
be necessary for general culture. A science closely interwoven with most mental achieve-
ments of the race, that is found in all civilizations, that represents the most finished types of exact thinking,
cannot be ignored by the man of culture. person unfamiliar with the elements of mathe-
matics cannot fully comprehend the simplest facts of astronoitiy, he is not able to read and to grasp the
accounts of the wonderful discoveries and inventions of
our time.
Summary.
into the spirit
becomes properly initiated of mathematical work, and pursues his

If the student
studies with interest,
some
:
of the principal results
may
be
briefly stated as follows
He
will
be led to an
intelli-
gent use of his reasoning faculties, and will recognize
VALUE AND AIM

that thinking
is
2Q
is
more
effective in study than
memoriz-
be led to a judicious mode of study in ing. general, and acquire mental self-reliance andjndependHe will take more interest in, and thereby derive Qnce,
will
He
more pleasure from,

It is needless to
his studies than ever before.
are not obtained.

is
say that in most cases these results As pointed out before, however, this
version
not due to the nature of the subject, but to the perof its true spirit by those who control our
schools,
and who frequently have no understanding of

principle of mathematical teaching.
the peculiarities of mathematics.
The fundamental
The acceptance
of the foregoing views
on the pur-
pose of mathematical teaching must more or less influence all principles of mathematical pedagogy* Among the numerous consequences, one is of such great importance, that it is no exaggeration to call it the funda-
mental principle of mathematical teaching, viz. Mathematics is primarily taught on account of the mental training it affords, and only secondarily on
:
account of the knowledge of facts
end of mathematical teaching is
The tme imparts. power and not knowledge.

it
CHAPTER
CLASSIFICATION OF
III
METHODS
No
haustive discussion of
attempt will be made to give in this book an exall methods that have any bearing
upon mathematical teaching.* The essential methods, those which have a substantial bearing upon however, will be discussed rather fully. the work of the teacher,
They
1.
are the following
The Synthetic and the Analytic Methods. 2. The Inductive and the Deductive Methods. 3. The Dogmatic and the Psychological Methods. 4. The Lecture and the Heuristic Methods. 5. The Laboratory Method. Each of these methods refers to a different phase
of
presentation of the subject, and consequently they do not exclude one another.
THE SYNTHETIC AND THE ANALYTIC METHODS

Description of the two methods. Synthetic methods lead from the known to the unknown, while analytic methods proceed from the unknown to the known. In
geometry a synthetic proof starts from the hypothesis and ends with the conclusion, while an analysis leads from the conclusion to the hypothesis. In a synthesis
* For greater detail the reader Mathematics.
is
referred to Young's Teaching of
30
31
we say
is true.
is true,
therefore
is
:
true,
and therefore
true
if
In an analysis
true
if
we reason
But
is
is
is
true,
true.
and B
is
A is true.
A is true, hence C
The demonstrations given in the textbooks of geometry are nearly all synthetic, while analytic proofs, in
most textbooks, are entirely omitted.
Examples.
The
true character of the terms analytic
and
synthetic, as used in elementary mathematics, will
possibly be best explained
by a number
of
concrete
examples.* Ex. i. If
then
Synthetic Proof.
a:b = c:d,
_c ~b~d
Adding
to each
member,
Simplifying,
2**
DC
JL.
ac
QED
.
.
Analytic Proof.
The
identity
-f
ac
2 b* __ c 2 ~~
bd
2 bd)bc.
be
dc
would be true
if
(ac
-f
2 b*)dc
(c*
This would be true
if
ac*d -f 2 Pcd -be*

or
if if
+2 Fed,
ac*d
= be*,
be.
or
ad
But
Therefore, ac
ad -
be.
2
:
be
(Hyp.)
2 bd\ dc.
C*
* For additional examples see Chapter XI.
32
The
synthetic proof
is
shorter,
more
elegant, but one
does not see
why
operation
is
was added
is justified
to each
member,
al-
by the result. The and almost awkward, but there analytic proof lengthy is no doubt why this sequence of steps was taken. The
though
this
synthetic proof is a special device, the analytic is based upon a general method. If the student should forget,
it
would be much easier for him
to
reconstruct the
analysis than the synthesis. Ex. 2. The line that joins the vertices of two isosceles
triangles having a
common
base
is
perpendicular to the
common
The
base.
synthesis of the proposition
is
the proof
commonly given
in
the textbooks.
We
prove
first
the equality of the triangles
ABE
the
and ACE, then the
equality of triangles and resulting equality of angles
ABD and ACD.

(i) Prove
From
BDA
CDA
follows the conclusion.
Analysis,
To
angle,
its
prove that an angle
is
a right
equal to
we
usually prove that
it is
ter VIII,
supplementary adjacent ones (ChapMethod IV), therefore we have

:
to prove
(2)
BDA^CDA.
equality of
The
two angles
is
usually
proved by means of two equal triangles (Chapter VIII, Method I), therefore we must prove
:
(3)
kBDA^kCDA.
to prove the equality of another pair of triangles
Since
we cannot
find
enough equal parts
the two triangles directly,
we
select first

whose homologous parts
VIII,
(4)
33
Method
III).
will supply the missing equalities (Chapter Therefore prove

:
&ABE= l\ACE, an equality which

is
is
easily established.
The
reduction of the conclusion to a simpler or more
easily proved statement into the various
accomplished by an inquiry
conclusion.
means of proving the
Hence
not simply say, " The lines are perpendicular if the two triangles are equal/' but ask for the means for
we do
proving the perpendicularity of two lines. Ex. 3. The line joining the mid-points of two sides of
a triangle
half of
it.
is
parallel to the third side
and equal
to
one
The
is
synthesis
is
the proof
commonly given
in textbooks.
Analysis, (i) The usual method for proving that one line (ED) one half of another (BC) is to double the smaller.* Hence we
produce
ED by its
own
length to F.
(2) Prove
EF = BC,
several
There methods
the
are
for
proving
and
equality of lines, several others for
^
Only one, however, proves equality one based upon a parallelo7.
proving parallelism of lines.
arid parallelism simultaneously, viz. the
gram.
Hence we attempt
to
(3) Prove that
BCEF is a
is
BC
There are again various methods of demonstrating that a figure a parallelogram, but since nothing whatever is known in regard to and CE exclusively, i.e. and we have to use the sides
EF
BF
we have
(4)
To
prove (a) BF\\

*
CEand
(J)
BF= CE.
Chapter XI, Method VII.
34
(a)
The fundamental method
upon the
to prove
for demonstrating parallelism oi equality of a pair of alternate interior angles.
lines rests
Hence we have
(5)
A = DBF.
usual
The
method
for
demonstrating the equality of two angles
makes use of the equality of triangles,
or
we
have to prove
(6)
___________
__
The equality of these

.
&
triangles
is
easily
es-
tablished,
and hence
the parallelism of
BF
these two lines
we have
and CE follows. To prove the equality of to remember that CE = AE. The equality
from the triangles considered in (6).
of
A E and BF follows
easily
This may appear difficult and artificial to a person not familiar with analyzing in general, and not accustomed to consider the various "means" for demonstrat-
But it is on the other hand ing certain geometric facts. obvious that this analysis gives a reason for taking each
step,
"
methods
and that a student acquainted with the various " will in most cases find this solution. The
synthesis, however, consists of a
correctness
we
see,
but for
number of steps, whose whose sequence we have no

length,
reason whatsoever.
In the synthesis
its
ED
is
produced by
own
we do not see why why we demonstrate
the equality of triangles FED and BAD, etc. Ex. 4. The sum of any two face angles of a triedral
angle
is
greater than a third face angle.

(i)
Analysis,
To
prove
/.AVB +
BVC>CVA.
(AVB and BVC)
with
When we
compare the
sum of two angles
a third angle CVA, we either construct

(a)
(b)
35
The sum
The
of
A VB and BVC,
CVA
and
is
or
difference of
AVB.
will
Method
(b) leads to the

is
demonstration that
analogous to (a).
In plane
generally given in textbooks, and
quite
Hence only (a)

draw
be analyzed.
B VC
VD
so that
Z.DVB=.
AVB,
then
we have
to prove that
(2)
DVC</LAVC.
for proving the inequality of angles,* but since the angles lie in different triangles, we must use the proposition of two triangles that have two sides equal, but the
There are three fundamental methods
third sides unequal.
Obviously
sides
intersecting
VC
is
common, and
to obtain the other pair of equal
we make
VD = VA
in B',
VB
and pass a plane through A, D, and C then CVA and DVC are two triangles that
have two sides of one equal prove that

(3)
to
two of the other, and
it
remains to
CA<DC.
=
CB'
But CA < CB' + B'A y and since CD would be proved if we could show that
(4)
+ B'D,
the theorem
B'A = B'D.
this is easily established
But
by means of equal
triangles.
* See Chapter X, Unequal Lines and Angles.
36
Value
of the
is
two methods.
synthesis shows that
why this step convinces the reader that synthetic proof the fact to be demonstrated is true, but does not reveal
every step
true,
but does not explain
was taken.
him the him why

to
this
real plan of the demonstration, does not tell sequence of arguments was selected.
and
Proofs are not discovered by the synthetic methods, if forgotten, synthetic demonstrations are most diffi-
But synthetic proofs are usually cult to reconstruct. short and elegant, and are in place when no pedagogical conditions need to be considered.
An analysis, on the other hand, is lengthy and not elegant, but it is the only method that accounts fully It is the only method for each step of demonstration. by which students can hope to discover proofs, or to rediscover them after they are forgotten. Analysis is the method of discovery synthesis the method of concise and
,
elegant presentation. Hence, students in secondary schools should be made to discover demonstrations by analysis, but after this
has been accomplished, the proof may be represented Exclusive synthetic teaching may be exsynthetically. cusable when jised with university students, who are
able to analyze for themselves, but even there bad results will frequently follow.*
Some authors, e.g. Gauss, are exceedingly difficult to read, because their demonstrations are frequently very concise syntheses, with no indications of the analytic steps by which the author arrived at his conclusions.
37
THE INDUCTIVE AND THE DEDUCTIVE METHODS

Description
of
the
two
methods.
The
inductive
method leads from the
particular to the general,
from
the concrete to the abstract, while the deductive method

derives particular truths from general truths, concrete
facts
from abstract
syllogism
:
facts.
Any
ing, e.g.
is
a good example of deductive reason-
Vertical angles are equal.
ZA
On
and
ZB
are vertical angles.
Hence,
Z A = Z B.
the other hand, any conclusion drawn fronLSSBS: rience, frorn^ a number ofêx-
anj^^nerallaw^denved
is
is
periments,
obtained by induction,
"
e.g.
Whenever a
rises,
body
all
of gas
compressed,
its
temperature
hence
gases will become hotter if compressed." Inductive reasoning is not absolutely conclusive,
it
only establishes a certain degree of probability, which increases with the number of facts observed. Hence it
cannot be used for exact mathematical demonstrations,* Eiit if can be employed for finding mathematical facts.
Mathematical facts discovered by induction.

discovery
find this
(i.e.
Such
is
best illustrated
first
I
to find the
sum of the sum from n =

:
by concrete examples, e.g. n natural numbers, let us

n
to
5,
and
let
us compare
divide) these sums with n.
We
obtain then the
following table
*
On
the inductive elements in mathematics see Chapter IV.
Since the quotient

it
is
f or
| for
2, |
for
3,
f for 4,
etc.,
is
very likely
natural numbers
for
# terms, or the sum of the
first
is
probably
is
deductive method of obtaining this formula substitution of/(^)=^ in the general formula
the
Similarly the next table shows us how to find the sum of the squares of the natural numbers by induction.
Here, however, the comparison with n does not easily

lead to an answer, but the comparison with the
sum
of
the
3,
first
n natural numbers gives

5.
for
i,
$ for
2, \ for
| for 4, V* for
Hence we reason
.
that
,
, ,
it
will
required
sum
is
probably
n(n ^
-be
3
for n, or the
i)(2n
+ i)
* To demonstrate fully facts obtained in this manner, additional methods are necessary. In the above example, such a method would be the so-called "mathematical induction,'* which, however, does not signify
induction in the ordinary philosophical sense. t See the author's Advanced Algebra, p. 542.
39
Deductive and inductive sequence.
Pedagogically the
that sequence
abstract, the special
term
"
inductive
"
relates principally to
which places the concrete before the

uses the opposite succession.
example before the general formula, while the deductive
Thus
site
it
would be deductive sequence
first
to derive
the formula for the square of a side of a triangle
oppo-
an acute angle (a 1
= b* + <?
2 cp)
and
to solve every
numerical example by substitution in this formula. It would be inductive sequence first to give a number of numerical examples before the general theorem is attacked.
simplify expressions of the type by the deductive method, we would first derive the general
To
formula
and solve every numerical example of this type by substitution. Using induction, we would first solve a number of numerical examples as
etc.,
^5+2^/6,
"^9
and only afterwards,
possibly, attack the problem
40
Value
is in
of the
two methods.
The
solution of mathe-
matical problems, by previously demonstrated formulae, It is general a very concise and practical method.
much
crete
shorter to memorize a formula for the median of
a'triangle than to find the numerical value in every con-
example by starting from the general median prop-
osition.
Hence teachers
as well as textbooks frequently
give deductive methods a prominent place, sometimes almost to the exclusion of all inductive work.
a beginner to understand an abstract piece of mathematical work, if Can not preceded by a number of concrete instances.
the other hand,
it is
On
very
difficult for
students really understand the derivation and the meaning of the formula for the number of permutations of n
things, taking r at a time,
by a number what a permutation
the problem is not preceded of concrete cases ? Can they even know
if
is
without concrete illustrations
Abstract ideas are the result of concrete experiences, and only after a number of concrete cases are understood
can abstract generalizations be successfully attacked. Moreover, purely deductive methods require a formula for every type of mathematical problems, and the extensive use of such
methods demands the memorizing of a
After forgetting these formulae great many and the forgetting takes places very rapidly the student
formulae.
is
utterly helpless.
Who remembers
;
Cardan's formula?
Pupils trained to attack problems inductively need not
upon this formula they can apply Cardan's method without knowing the formula " by heart." *
rely
* See the author's Advanced Algebra,
p. 495.
4!
The preceding arguments, however, do

abandoning of
although
it
not involve the

the contrary,
all
deductive methods.
is
On
for certain types of work, deduction
most important,
should always be preceded by induction.
Thus, for
all
acter, formulae should
important problems of fundamental charbe memorized. For instance, the

4
formulae for the roots of a quadratic equation, the formulae for progressions, the binomial theorem, etc., should
be thoroughly memorized and applied. Hence we cannot use one of these methods to the exclusion of the
other,
1.
and we may summarize as follows Apply inductive methods whenever there

:
is
an
opportunity. 2. Use deductive methods also, but only after attacking the subject inductively.
3. Deduction, and the consequent memorizing, should be restricted to the most important cases.*
THE DOGMATIC AND THE PSYCHOLOGICAL! METHODS

The dogmatic method.
The dogmatic method makes
rigor the chief desideratum of mathematical study, while

** Lately there has been a tendency to teach general theorems at a very early stage of the work. A typical instance of this kind is the factor theorem. The reasons advanced above make it undesirable to study For, as a rule, the general theorems at too early a stage of the work.
students do not understand, and hardly ever appreciate, such theorems. Let the student first become familiar with the use of simple tools, before
we
let
him use highly
refined instruments.
No
general theorem should
be taught before the student recognizes the necessity for such a proposition, and before he is aware of the difficulty of the special cases.
t
Sometimes
called the genetic
method, a term which
is,
however,
fre-
quently used in a different sense.
42
the psychological method advocates rigor only so far as the average capacity of young students justifies it. The
dogmatists claim that the value of mathematical teaching rests mainly upon its extreme exactness, that any deviation from the absolute standard of rigor will defeat
the very purpose of the entire work, and will necessarily lead to slipshod thinking. Indeed, there are teachers
who
lay the inefficiency of mathematical teaching mainly
to insufficient rigor.
It is
claimed that the inability of students to underif
stand the utmost refinements of mathematical thinking
may be overcome by making them study memorize perfect models. By learning

models the student
mathematical work.*
is
necessary, a great many said to acquire, in some unex-
plained manner, understanding of and ability to do
The psychological method. The followers of the psychological method assert that in any subject it is a mistake to consider only the scientific aspect of the subject, and to ignore absolutely the degree of mental develop-
ment
of the student.
An
exactness which
is
not under-
stood by the student is not exactness so far as he is concerned. Over-rigorous teaching will not lead to
* The assertion that mathematics can be studied by reading and rereading perfect models, without any original thinking on the part of the student, can be made only by people who either are not capable of analyzing their own ideas, or who cannot do any mathematical thinking
of their own.
For otherwise they would notice the inefficiency of an
occasional bit of study based upon reading alone. Such study does not lead the reader to observe the characteristic difficulties and the nature
of the critical points of the subject,
and hence the knowledge acquired
in this
manner
is
superficial
and
short-lived.

rigorous thinking.
43
In most cases the result will be lack
of interest, sometimes even disgust with a subject.
Rigor.
While exactness
speaking are
among
in thinking and accuracy in the chief aims of mathematical
teaching, exactness must never be carried to such an extreme as to make the subject unintelligible to the
student.
The
is
objections to extreme rigor

:
may be sumsecondary
is
marized as follows *
1.
There
no absolute rigor possible

insisted
in a
school.
2.
The
rigor
upon
in
many
classrooms
frequently only an exact adherence to a textbook, which
may, and often does, contain flaws. 3. By studying exact models which he cannot understand, the student will not
for he does not
improve
his reasoning
power,
do any exact thinking.

else's ideas.
He only repeats
exactly
4.
somebody
Students lose interest in
mathematics and acquire
wrong notions
5.
of mathematics in general.
Students are frequently led to mechanical methods
of study
6.
memorizing. Students without mathematical
and
to
ability,
but with
go'od memories, are mathematicians.
made
to consider themselves
good
THE LECTURE METHOD AND THE HEURISTIC METHOD

method. Scarcely any teacher in a school would present geometry or algebra in secondary the form of lectures. There are, however, teachers who
lecture
*
The
Compare Chapter VI, Preliminary
Propositions.
44
lecture too
much, teachers who are inclined
to state
demonstrations or other pieces of work without questioning the students in other words, teachers who pre;
sent considerable portions of the work in the lecture Hence a brief discussion of the merits and drawform.
backs of the lecture method

Merits.
i.
may be
justified.
presentation of a large amount of subject matter within a given time. 2. It can be used for large audiences.
It allows the
3.
The
It is
logical
sequence of ideas
i.
is
not interrupted.
not mathe-
4.
comparatively easy for the teacher.
Drawbacks.
Receiving information
is
is
matical study. 2. The attention of the students
likely to
wander.
is
ideas follow one another so rapidly that little 3. comprehended during the lecture, and a great deal is
The
left to
home
study.
4. In mathematics, the inability to understand one essential point may make the rest of the lecture unintelligible.
5.
The
teacter
is
not in contact with his
class,
and
is
unable to determine whether or not the majority of the

students are able to follow.
In general, lecturing, even to a small extent, is out of place in a secondary school, but is somewhat justified for advanced university work.
The
heuristic method.*
The
heuristic
method
at-
* The heuristic method
is
sometimes called the Socratic method,

viz.
although the latter is only a special form of the former, ad absurdum by questions.
the leading
45
tempts to make students find and discover as much as possible, and to reduce direct information to a minimum,
Since students of high school age are unable to
absolutely original discoveries, heuristic method does the leading
make
Not
they must be
led,
and the
by
questions.*
only the teaching in the classroom but also the arrangement of textbooks may be based upon the heuristic plan.
I. Pupils think for themselves and are not merely listening for information. 2. Students acquire a real understanding of the sub*
Advantages.
ject.
not grasp
person listening to a lecture quite often does all the peculiarities of a demonstration on
;
few days later to construct such proof, certain difficulties that were not noticed at the lecture
his attempt a
interfere.
student, however,
who
discovers
tjie solu-
tion of a
its difficulties
3.
problem himself has a full understanding of and can easily reconstruct it.
interest of
^The
the students
and the resulting
willingness to
heuristically,
work are greater when they are taught than when taught by informational
;
methods.
ful
Mathematical instruction cannot be successto stimulate the interest

is
if it fails
and, on the other
hand, interest
the most powerful stimulus for work.

is
student
who
and
interested has
no
difficulty in
paying
is
attention,
is,
as a rule, successful in his work.
Mathematical study for one deeply interested

*
When
the questions are addressed to the entire class the
members
of
which are expected to cooperate, when requested, the method has been
called the "genetic."
But
as this
is
is
the
mode of procedure
artificial.
of nearly aU
heuristic teaching the distinction
somewhat
46
In general no truer
cri
pleasure, and not a drudgery.
terion for the success of mathematical instruction exists
than the interest of the students.

4.
5."
Teachers are in complete touch with their
classes.
Home
when
study informational methods are used.
is
not nearly so heavy or tedious as
i. The heuristic method is slow, Disadvantages. in the beginning. especially 2. It is sometimes difficult to make students discover
certain facts.
3.
The method
is difficult
for the teacher, for
he can-
not simply follow a textbook, but must constantly seek devices for leading students, devices that must be modified for different pupils
4.
and for different
classes.
The method does not work well every teacher. Some teachers expect
in the
hands of
too
much from
the pupils, and consequently accomplish hardly anyOthers expect too little, making the questions thing.
so easy that students have to answer simply "yes" This is the fault of some textbooks that or "no."
claim to be heuristic, and lead the students by questions

like the following
:
"Com pare AB
"
and A C." Z BAD and Z DAC." Compare

is
"
"
What
common
to
A ABD and ACD
"
?
Compare
A ABD and ACD."

"
?
"What
The
conclusion can you draw with reference to
Z B and Z C
ability to
ask truly heuristic questions
is
most
essential for the mathematical teacher.
47
THE LABORATORY METHOD

Description of the method.
The general
dissatisfac-
tion with the results of the prevailing dogmatic-informational methods has recently placed in the center of interest a method that has some similarity to the heuristic
method.
The
laboratory
method proposes
also to
lead students to the discovery of mathematical facts. The means of discovery, however, is not the questions
of the teacher, but experiments performed
by the
pupil.
By
actual weighing and measuring, areas, volumes, lines,

;
and angles are determined and each particular mathematical relation is found as a consequence of a number
of such experiments.
the area of a circle and

of cardboard a
Thus, to make a student discover the relation between its diameter, have him cut out
number
of circles,
and
let
him determine
the areas by experiment. These areas^may, for instance, be found by comparing the weights of the cardboard
disks with the weight of the unit of area, cut out of the
same
material.
weights, the studerit
By making a list of diameters and may find the relation

:
area
It
3^ (radius)
would lead too
far to give extended lists of all the
schemes and devices proposed by the advocates of the laboratory method. The wide scope of the work,
different
however, is indicated by the great variety of materials that have been used in such work, as drawing instruments, cross-section paper, measuring rods, calipers,
48
taj. es,
balances, transit instruments, sextants, steel
ther-
mometers, levers, pulleys, planimeters, etc. Good features of the laboratory method. The natural
making discoveries, the way the human race has from the concrete to the abstract. Laboratory work is exceedingly concrete and hence interesting and
way
of
taken,
is
enjoyable to young students. It emphasizes the doing, it requires the student to accomplish something that is
within his capacity.
The
laboratory
method brings the applications of
mathematics into prominence, while students taught otherwise are notoriously weak in applying their mathematics. Finally it gives the student a clear notion of student who has measured many the space concepts. will naturally know what an angle is, a thing not angles
at all certain in the case of students
whose instruction
It
is
was purely
theoretic.
i.
Weak
not at
facts
2.
3.
features of the laboratory method.
all
easy to
make
students discover mathematical
by experiment. It is an exceedingly slow method.

It
degenerates sometimes into a kind of manual
training.
4. It is based upon the wrong assumption that pupils cannot comprehend, and do not enjoy, demon strational mathematics.
A
5. Laboratory work and induction from experience are not typical mathematical work, and hence such methods used exclusively do not give the student any It makes the training in true mathematical thinking.

student acquainted with
49
mathematical reasoning.
Summary.
Laboratory methods form
an exceed-
ingly valuable supplement to the teaching of mathematics. Students doing some work of this character
will
have more interest
mathematics.
pushed to
in, and understanding of, pure But the laboratory method must riot be the point of complete abandonment of pure
mathematics.
CHAPTER
IV
THE FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS*
THE AXIOMS OF GEOMETRY

The bases
of geometry.
premises which either are
self-evident, or
Every conclusion rests upon which require
demonstrations, i.e. lead to other premises. As this reference to more fundamental premises cannot be continued ad infinitum, every deductive science, and
geometry
in particular, rests
upon a number
of
non-
provable propositions, considered self-evident and called axioms. To define an axiom, however, as a self-evident truth would involve the assumption of an immutable
appear from the following section that axioms are sometimes merely conventions without much reference to their common-sense
standard of self-evidence.
It will
evidence
an axiom
is
but in a preliminary sense we may say that a proposition, ( i ) assumed as self-evident,
(2) not capable of being
deduced from other axioms.
Following Euclid, axioms relating to purely geometric " Two points determine a straight line," are frefacts, as
quently called postulates.!
*
The
entire subject of
geom-
It is impossible to give even an outline of this important subject within the available space. Here only a few fundamental phases of the subject, which seem to have philosophic or pedagogic importance, are
discussed.
f
The term
"
postulate
"
is
used in elementary geometry in a some-
what
different sense.
THE FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

etry rests
$1
upon axioms,
postulates,
and
definitions,
and
hence these are frequently called the bases of geometry.
The philosophic aspect

chief philosophic
of the geometric axioms.
The
question
in regard
to
mathematical
axioms
is
Does the knowledge

experience,
or
?
of
is
the mathematical
it
axioms precede
experience
the
result
of
The rational doctrine in general asserts that certain elements of reason must underlie all experience; that
without them experience is impossible. In other words, the knowledge of certain facts must precede all experience; there is knowledge a priori. The empirical
school, on the other hand, claims that all
knowledge
is
finally derived from experience, and that there can be
no knowledge a priori. The mathematical axioms derive a special philosophic interest from the fact that they played a very important
role
in
the controversy
between
these schools.
The
rationalists always pointed to geometry as an obvious example of knowledge independent of experi-
knowledge a priori. Geometry, they claimed, gives us some knowledge of the real world, and is indeence,
pendent of experience. This argument can be met either by contending that
geometry does not give us any knowledge of the real world, or by claiming that geometric axioms are ex-
made
like
While modern mathematics has perimental facts. the first assertion very probable, most empiricists
Hume
and Mill attempted to prove the second

Mill, the postulates
point.
According to John Stuart
52
are
neither exact nor necessary, and their apparent certainty is produced by the continuous presence of
Two diverging lines are always seen to diverge farther and farther, and this experience, often repeated and uncontradicted, is the reason why
spatial impressions.
we cannot conceive
again.
the
possibility of
is
their
meeting
apparent certainty only the result of induction, and does not prove that the opposite is
this
But
impossible.
Kant,* on the other hand, considers the axioms as He claims that they (synthetic) judgments a priori.
possess a universal and necessary certainty which no experience can give, and that the opposite is unthinkable.
We
of
whose angles
cannot conceive the existence of a triangle the is more than 180.
sum
Purely philosophical speculations have not advanced the solution of this problem as much as have the mathematical investigations which
we
shall briefly discuss in
the next sections.
NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRIES AND THE AXIOMS

Euclid's postulates.
Not considering statements

viz.
:
that
obviously can be proved, Euclid's geometry contains
two geometric axioms,

I.
Two
is
points determine a straight line.

not a rationalist in the strict sense of the word.
* Kant
He
asserts
There
is
knowledge a priori, but this knowledge is only about things as they appear, not about things as they really are. Kant's rationalism
is
therefore idealistic, while before
him
it
was
realistic, i.e.
relating to
the knowledge of the real world.

2.
53
Two
intersecting lines cannot both be parallel to a
third line.*
Tacitly assumed, however,
is
:
a third postulate, the place to place with-
so-called axiom of free mobility

3.
figure can be
moved from
is
out change of form.
The axiom
of mobility
of great importance, for all
proofs of equality and all measurements depend upon it, but up to comparatively recent times its tacit assumption was not recognized.
the second axiom, frequently called Euclid's postuto be capable of proof, innumerable attempts late, were made to deduce it from the other axioms, but with-
As
seemed
out success.
After centuries of continued failure this
lack of proof was considered such a flaw in the apparently perfect structure of geometry that some mathe-
maticians referred to
it
as the defect or
disgrace of
mathematics.
The geometry
a method
first
of
Lobatschewsky.
Finally, however,
Bolyai
and
suggested by Gauss, and carried out by Lobatschewsky, f showed absolutely that
Euclid's postulate cannot be proved.
This method, which
may be
called the indirect proof

;
* These axioms frequently appear in different forms

(1)
(a)
(b)
e.g. :
(2)
(a)
Two diverging lines cannot meet again. Two straight lines cannot inclose a space. Two lines are parallel if two interior angles on
a transversal are supplementary. The sum of the angles of a triangle equals 180.
the same side of
(b)
Gauss communicated and Bolyai published his

t
his results to Bolyai's father, 1795 to 1799,
results in
1832.
is
About the
originality of
Lobatschewsky's work, however, there
absolutely no doubt.
54
scale,
on a large
parallels to a line
assumes that through a point several can be drawn, and, retaining the other
axioms, draws a great
many
is
consequences, in fact builds
up an entire geometry.
i.e.
If this
assumption
is
wrong,
if
Euclid's postulate
of the other axioms,
the necessary consequence then sooner or later contradictions

is
must appear.
The
surprising result, however,
that
the entire system does not lead to any contradictions. Lobatschewsky obtained an entirely new geometry,
forming a perfect non-contradictory system that is as coherent and as logical as Euclid's.* This shows conclusively that Euclid's postulate
not a consequence of the other axioms, and that there is no logical reason
is
against assuming that two parallel to a line.
intersecting
lines
may be
Lobatschewsky's geometry was the first non-Euclidean geometry, but soon others were to appear.
The geometry of Riemann. About twenty-five years later, Riemann constructed a geometry which is based upon a much deeper analysis of the axioms and the
nature of
only the axiom of mobility, but rejecting the two other postulates, Riespace.f
By
retaining
this geometry differ in many cases from those of and some appear at first rather singular, e.g. : 1. The sum of the angles of a triangle is always less than 180. 2. The area of a triangle is proportional to the difference between the sum of its angles and 180. 3. Two perpendiculars erected at two points of a line diverge. 4. There are no similar figures.
* The theorems of
Euclid,
5.
Space is finite, but unbounded, etc. Riemann, Ueber die Hypothesen die der Geometric zu Grunde-
liegen.
55
mann
obtains results that
show a
striking analogy to
in others opposite.*
those of Lobatschewsky, being in some cases identical, Riemann's two-dimensional geomis
etry
identical with Euclid's spherical geometry, while
his solid
geometry involves curved space, a notion based

to
upon While Lobatschewsky's geometry did not lead

*
E.g.,
i.
certain investigations of Gauss. f
any
The sum
is
always greater than
180.
2.
The
area of a triangle
1
is
proportional to the
sum
of its angles di-
minished by
3.
80.
Two
perpendiculars erected at two different points on a line con-
verge.
4.
5.
There are no similar figures. Space is finite, but unbounded,
etc.
frequently attempted to make the notion of curved space somewhat more plausible by the following considerations Imagine (if you can) two-dimensional beings who live on the surface of a huge sphere,
f It is
:
and whose physical constitution does not allow them to perceive anything outside this spherical surface. As long as such beings are acquainted only with a small portion of the sphere, they will consider their world a plane and if they construct any geometry, it will be the plane Euclidean geometry. If they should, however, become acquainted with
;
a comparatively large portion of this sphere, they would recognize that their world is a sphere, and that their former geometry was not exactly
They would construct a spherical geometry and recognize that what they considered straight lines arc really circles; that true straight that their world is finite and unbounded, etc. lines cannot exist Similarly our notions of three-dimensional space may be due to limited experience, and an acquaintance with larger portions of the world so it is argued may show that space is curved, a notion which we cannot imagine, but whose consequences we can draw. In such a space, apparent planes would be spherical surfaces, lines would be circles, true straight lines and planes could not exist, such a space would be finite and unbounded. This whole explanation is, however, so full of difficulties and impossibilities that it has no scientific value.
true.
;
50
contradictions, there
was the
possibility that
by further
development hidden contradictions might be revealed. Riemann's two-dimensional geometry, being identical
with the Euclidean spherical geometry, cannot possibly As the same conclusion can lead to any contradiction.
geometry, Riemann's work was not open to the only objection that could be made to Lobatschewsky's.* Thus we have three geometries, all three equally true as far as logic can decide,
be generally proved for his
solid
although not
purposes.
all
three equally convenient for practical
Modern view
of
geometric axioms.
The
fact that
different parallel axioms produce perfect logical systems

* Soon afterward, however, Beltrami showed that Lobatschewsky's two-dimensional geometry is identical with the geometry of figures that can be drawn on the so-called surfaces of constant negative curvature,
and removed thereby the above-mentioned
objection. surface of constant negative curvature is either a pseudosphere or a surface that may be deformed so as to be applied to a pseudosphere.
Similarly, a surface of constant positive curvature

its
deformations, and a surface of zero curvature

etc.).
is
is a sphere or any of a plane or any develop-
able surface (as cone, cylinder,
The
different two-dimensional geometries

:
may
be represented in the
following surface
The mathematical
expression for measurement of curvature

radii of
is
RiRa
where Ri and R2 are the principal
normal curvature.

proves that
57
we have no
logical
reason for adopting
Reasoning, unsupported by experiwould be absolutely unable to make a choice beence, tween the three parallel axioms and hence the view of
;
Euclid's postulate.
the rationalists that the postulates are a priori facts, the knowledge of which precedes all experience, and the In opposite of which is unthinkable, is hardly tenable.
.
regard to the true nature of the axioms

that pure geometry selects
that
it
its
axioms
in
we may say the same way
chooses
its
definitions, viz.
by accepting conven-
tions that do not lead to contradictions, without regarding

in the least
our physical experiences. Most mathematicians therefore consider geometric axioms as conven-
tions.*
general acceptance of the Euclidean axiom in preference to non-Euclidean axioms is due to experience.
The
Hence, we may say that Euclidean geometry is based upon experience or induction. partly Summary of the consequences of non Euclidean geometry.
The view is not unfrequently expressed that non-Euclidean geometry or Metageometry as it is is a logical curiosity opposed to all sometimes called
value.
common sense, and without any mathematical As far as any knowledge of the real
concerned
this
or other
world
is
may be
true,
but the study of these subadvantages,
jects has nevertheless distinct which are the following

:
some
of
i.
It positively
demonstrates that Euclid's postulates
* This does not of course relate to the general axioms which have no
geometric character.
58
axioms.
cannot be derived from the other
Before
Lobatschewsky mathematicians wasted a great deal of effort in the vain attempt to prove the impossible, while
at present the
problem belongs
in the
same
class as the
squaring of the circle, or perpetual motion.

the foundations of geometry, and especially the true nature of the axioms, has been put on a much more scientific basis than before.
2.
The knowledge of
of the rationalists that geometry gives us an a priori knowledge of the world has been met.
3.
The argument
This has been accomplished, however, not by following Mill's line of argument, but by proving thatflure geometry cannot give us
any knowledge of the real world.
Other geometries. Although some geometers were the three geometries as the only inclined to consider possible ones, it was soon recognized that other axioms
had been
tems.
tacitly
assumed whose denial

this
led to other sys-
development* has been to put Euclidean as well as non-Euclidean geometries upon a stricter logical basis by freeing it from all
elements of sense-perception. Things which we per-' ceive to be obviously true by inspection of the diagram cannot be admitted without argument, for seeing is not
demonstrating. Thus, if four collinear points, A,B,C, D, are so located that C lies between A and D, and B be-
The main tendency of
tween
and
C,
then we can see that
lies
between
and D. Such an argument, however, could not be admitted in the rigorous geometry. It has either to be
*
Hilbert,
The best-known investigator in this field is possibly The Foundations of Geometry, Chicago, 1902.
Hilbert.
Sec

demonstrated, or
if
59
consistent with the other axioms,
may
be admitted as an axiom.
obtain highly logical geometries, built upon numerous axioms, and free from empirical elements. The figures to which they refer, however, have little in
Thus we
with the figures with which our senses have made and there is no rigorous proof that the results of such geometries agree with the results
us familiar
;
common
of the
geometry that refers
to
real
spatial
objects.
In other words, these systems, while highly perfect from the point of view of logic, are not applicable at
least not
if
we wish
to retain our
high standard of rigor.
We may
that have no
applications.
almost speak of systems of logical symbols meaning and that do not lead to any
THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF ALGEBRA

used in elementary algebra always represent numbers,* and hence this science may be considered an extension of arithmetic, and its fundaletters
The laws.
The
mental laws must be identical with those of arithmetic.! It is, however, not easy to recognize that certain laws
are* tacitly
assumed
in all arithmetical operations,
and
men added and

* There
t
subtracted for
many
centuries without
exist, however, other, non-numerical algebras. complete outline of this matter cannot of course be given in a few pages, hence only a few illustrations are given above. The reader is
Mathematischen Wissenschaften, Band I, Schubert, Grundlagen der Arithmetik, Leipzig, or to the French edition of the same work Encyclopedic des sciences mathe'matiques pures et applique'es, Gauthier Villar, Paris.
referred to Encyklopadie der
:
6O
recognizing these laws, until in the first half of the nineteenth century the investigations of English and French mathematicians revealed their existence.
To show
the assumption of
some
of these laws let us

e.g.
5
;
consider a simple example of addition, The number 25 is a symbol for 20-}-
17
+ 8 = 25.
we must
hence our ex
ample
to 17.
is
17
+8=
20
-f 5.
To
obtain the 20
obviously divide 8 into

Or,
17
i.e.
two
parts, 3
and
5,
and add 3
we have:
17
+ 8=
+ (3 +
5)
= (i7 + 3)+ 5 =
:
20
+ 5;
we have assumed
the associative law
Similarly, to multiply 8
by 13 we have:
8x(io+3)=8x
or, since
10 -1-8 x 3; (Distributive
first:
Law)
we
multiply units
8xio + 8x3 = 8x3 + 8x = 24 + 80
10 (Commutative
Law)
= (4 + 20) + 80 = 4 + (20 + 80) = 4 + 100 = 100 + 4.

Some
The commutative
law,
(Associative
Law)
(Commutative Law)
:
of the most important laws for addition are
The
associative law,
+ b = b + a. a+ (6 + c) = (a + 6)+ c.
a

For multiplication The commutative law,
:
61
The
The
associative law,
distributive law,
= ba. = a(bc). (ab)c a(b + c) = ab + ac.*

ab
All arithmetical calculations consist of applications of these laws and of the multiplication and addition Since these laws underlie all algebra tables for units.
and ultimately
been made
to
all
mathematics, various attempts have account for them. Some mathematito
cians have attempted
derive
some
of
these
laws
ones.f
from the remaining ones or from other still simpler Others tried to derive them from more general
concepts.}:
But all such investigations leave a remainder, for the explanation of which two theories have been elaborated, viz.
1.
:
2.
The realistic view. The formal view.

realistic view.
to,
The
mathematics refers
formation about, real

marily numbers of damental laws of
According to the realistic view and is capable of giving us inMathematics is partly things.
based upon experience, and
numbers represent priOur knowledge of the funthings. is due to sense-perception. algebra
* The above illustrations are sufficient for our purpose, but there are other laws, e.g. the results of addition and multiplication are onevalued multiplication and addition are always possible.
;
f
t
Peano, Arithmetices principia nova methodo exposita, Torino, 1889. See Dedekind, Was sind und was E.g. theory of assemblages.
sollen die Zahlen, Braunschweig, 1888.
62
can
see
that
:
We
24-3
= =
3-7-2,
if
we observe
the
annexed diagram
Similarly, the next
diagram shows that
2x3 = 3x2:
Of course we cannot
see that 245 x
727=
727 x 245,
but mathematical induction enables us to prove that

these laws are generally true,
for
some numbers.
its
have
roots partly
if we can establish them Thus algebra is considered to in experience it is to some extent

;
an inductive science.
The formal view.
This assumes the fundamental
laws as the basis of. arithmetic and algebra.
These
laws are definitions, and algebra is what it is in consequence of these definitions, and not in consequence of
any
of
its
applications.
Any
_
is
particular
arithmetic
problem as ^
to
+ 6677
-I-
c -
or
5.
not solved by reference
any real things (i.e. what we would obtain if we added and f of a thing), but solely by the fundamental laws. $
After the acceptance of the laws, the letters
jr,
a, b, c,
are simply symbols which obey these laws, and their meaning is not in the least determined or restricted
etc.,
by any possible application

anything.
in fact, they
do not mean
Thus
algebra, like
rigorous
geometry, becomes an
abstract system of symbols that depends solely upon the arbitrarily assumed laws, that is independent of
63
experience, and that has no connection with the real This system would be perfect if the consistency world. of the fundamental laws could be proved, since inconsistent principles will lead to contradictions.*
But
this
proof has not been given, and
is
not likely to be given.
Comparison
basis.
of the
two views.
The
realistic
view
is
not able to put every element of algebra upon a logical It must admit that mathematics contains a few
elements of empirical character.
While
this
means the
giving up of logical perfection, it produces on the other hand an algebra that is applicable.
The formal view

more
plied.
It
of algebra places the subject

its
upon a
logical basis, but
results cannot be directly apto demonstrate that this
would be necessary
is
formal algebra a proof that in

is
identical with the applicable algebra,
all
probability cannot be given.
For
it
symbolism based upon arbitrarily assumed laws cannot give any information about real things.
clear that a
But applications are the life of mathematics. Without applications it would never have been invented; without applications it would soon be forgotten. Hence
if
we
could
structure, that
Nobody mean nothing, which

Conclusion.
absolutely exact logical not applicable, it would lose its value. would care to study a system of symbols which
is
make algebra an
nothing, and which lead

gations has been to
* The
realistic
are connected by laws that mean to results that mean nothing.

of
Thus the tendency

split
modern
investi-
mathematics
geometry as
theory does not need such a demonstration, since oper-
ations with real things cannot lead to contradiction.
64
into
well as algebra
two parts,
viz.
the
applicable
mathematics
rigorous fprmal has been made exceedingly rigid and logical and has been freed from almost all elements of experi-
and
the
mathematics.
The
latter
ence, but at the expense of
its
applicability.
Everything
in this
formal science
trary assumptions
that are logical,
upon arbi but that have no

is
built
relation to real things.

in
Hilbert's planes have very little with real planes; formal numbers are not common numbers of real things. While the rigorous formal part
has undoubtedly done a great deal to clear up
many
philosophical questions relating to mathematics, it would have little interest if there were no applicable mathematics.
PEDAGOGIC CONCLUSIONS
None
of the
facts
relating
to
the
foundations of
mathematics has a place in secondary schools. student must become acquainted with quite a number of
mathematical facts and theories before he can understand
nature.
and appreciate investigations of so
difficult
the attempts of some writers to present these matters to high school students cannot be
Hence
recommended.
But these facts do influence the teaching of mathematics indirectly. The modern investigations of the foundations of mathematics prove clearly that the sys-
tem of geometry as found
in school
textbooks
is
not
the absolutely rigorous system that a few decades ago it was believed to be. Errors and assumptions hav
65
been shown to enter into many elements of that supstudy of the posedly flawless system of logic. foundations of mathematics will convince the teacher
who
insists
upon a
repetition of every
word
of his geo-
metric gospel, that the perfect rigor exists only in his

imagination.
for beginners; but
have no great value are mentioned at all, they they should be explained by means of concrete arithmetical In regard to the teaching of axioms in high examples.
of algebra
if
The fundamental laws
out of place. Thus we do not need to strive for absolute completeness when comschools, an excess of rigor
is
piling lists of axioms.
statement
may be
considered
;
an axiom even
if it
can be deduced from other axioms
and a common sense reason may sometimes be given when technically an axiom should be quoted.
CHAPTER V
DEFINITIONS
LOGICAL ASPECTS OF DEFINITIONS
What
is
a definition ?
The number
of
ways
of de-
" " is as large as the number of definition fining the term and the number of dictionaries.* For treatises on logic
the purposes of elementary mathematics, however, the old scholastic definition, although little used by modern
writers on logic, is exceedingly useful, viz. definition is the designation of tJie proximate genus and the specific
difference.
To
define a term
we must
state the proximate

it
belongs, and the the particularities that distinguish specific difference, it from all others of the same genus, f Thus for a par-
genus,
i.e.
the nearest class to which

i.e.
allelopiped the proximate genus specific difference is the fact that

*
is
its
"prism," and the base is a parallelo:
is
definition Among the more widely known may be mentioned the explaining of a term by means of others, which are more easily " A concise account of the essential and understood " (De Morgan) " characteristic properties of a thing ; description or an explana" tion of a word, thing, or symbol that distinguishes it from all others
;
"A
"A
(Standard Dictionary) etc. " all definition is classification" (Erdman, Die Axiome t The view that der Mathematik) may not be generally true, but it is certainly useful in mathematics. Complete classification of a set of terms frequently
;
understanding of their meaning. Thus in defining quada complete scheme of classification on the blackboard in which each kind of figure finds its proper place.
facilitates the
rilaterals, it is advisable to represent
66
DEFINITIONS
67
a prism whose base
is
gram.
Hence a
parallelepiped
is
a parallelogram.
Errors in genus. The given in a definition must be the proximate,

errors.
i.
Common
genus
i.e.
the
nearest one.
Hence
it is
wrong
to define a
pentagon as
a plane figure bounded by five straight lines, for the nearest genus is the polygon. Similarly, in a definition,
a parallelogram must not be classified as a polygon, nor a triangle as a portion of a plane, nor an octaedron as a solid, nor a parallelepiped as a polyedron, etc.
Errors in the differentia. Redundancy. Neither more nor fewer differences must be given than are necessary to determine precisely the meaning of the term.
2.
The
statement,
vertices
"An
lie
inscribed polygon
whose
in a circumference,
polygon and whose sides
is
is redundant, since two differences are each of which is the consequence of the other. given, If the vertices lie in the circumference, the sides must
are chords,"
necessarily be chords, and vice versa.
Redundancy, however, is particularly objectionable if the differences which are given are not obviously compatible.
it
Such a
definition either involves a
theorem or
parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are equal and parallel" involves a theorem; while the statement, "A
spherical square
is
defines an impossible thing.
"
a spherical quadrilateral
whose
sides
are equal and whose angles are right angles/' gives differences that are incompatible, and hence refers to a Certain time-honored redunfigure that cannot exist.
dancies, however, such as the usual definitions of rhom-
68
bus, rectangle, prism, perpendicularity of line and plane,
are justifiable on pedagogic grounds, since they convey at once to the student a clear notion of the true shape
of the figure,
and the
slight error
made may be
easily
corrected
The
the corresponding theorem is studied. "A rectangle is a parallelogram whose definition,
when
clearer mental
definition.
It
is
angles are right angles,'' is redundant, but it gives a image of the figure than does the correct
doubtful whether the
redundancies that are

chapters of
the
sometimes
used in more
advanced
geometry for the purpose of avoiding difficult proofs, can be justified. A regular polyedron is nearly al-
ways defined
regular
equal."
a polyedron whose faces are equal polygons, and whose polyedral angles are The equality of the polyedral angles follows
as
"
from the fact that

Difficulties
faces are equal regular polygons. inherent in certain definitions. Two

all
classes of
eral class
terms are most
difficult to
define, viz. gen-
names, as mathematics,
geometry, algebra,
functions, etc.,
direction,
and very fundamental terms, as line, plane, etc. The former can be formulated
and appreciated only by advanced students who really know what these terms mean and their importance
;
for secondary schools

latter
is
consequently very small.
The
of
we
shall consider at
all
Just as
somewhat greater length. theorems rest finally upon a number
supposedly self-evident
definitions
propositions or axioms, so all
must ultimately be based upon a few exHence there exist a number ceedingly simple ones.
DEFINITIONS
69
of terms, such as space, boundary, position, direction,
straight line, plane, etc., which are either not capable " diffiof definition or which are hard to define from the
culty of finding ideas more simple and intelligible than Most of these are accepted the ones to be defined."
without
nearly
Line.
definitions
all
a few,
however,
are
defined
in
textbooks and are taught in most schools. typical example of this kind is represented
definitions
by the various
appear
closer
of
straight
line
which
used textbooks, all of which upon Thus the comanalysis prove to be faulty.* " A line that has the same direcmonly given definition, tion throughout its length," involves the term direction,
in the widely
which
line.
is
The
not simpler or rpore self-evident than straight " statement, straight line is the shortest dis-
tance between two points," is not a definition, but a theorem, and makes use of distance, a term based upon
straight line.
The
definition,
"
straight line
is
a line
determined by two points," is possibly the most absurd of all of them, for it is utterly unintelligible to the beginner, who does not know the technical meaning of the
phrase "determined by," and who, if the phrase should have for him any meaning at all, may think of other lines, " " determined by e.g. the minimum circle, which is also
two
points.
is
Similarly
all
other definitions contain flaws.
often claimed that the well-known definition given by Gauss But aside irom the fact that scientific objections have been made, it is one that has no value for secondary school work.
is
* It
absolutely exact.
If a figure moves (rotates) is based upon the following consideration while two points in a line remain fixed, the line is a straight one if all its points are motionless while all the rest of the figure moves.
It
70
relate to
They
motion and involve the notion of time,
or
are vague and almost meaningless statements.* There exists no flawless definition of straight line which is fit
for school use, and undoubtedly the best policy would be
to accept this
term without
definition.
Angle.
Similar difficulties are encountered in the
formulation of a definition of angle. Usually the word " " angle is defined by using terms like inclination, direction, rotation, etc.,
whose meaning
is
either not clearer
than the meaning of angle, or which imply mechanical notions. Undoubtedly the idea of rotation furnishes a
splendid explanation of what an angle is, but not a formal definition. Often an angle is defined as the
lines. An infinite space, however, a most peculiar idea for a beginner, and the comparison of several infinite spaces, e.g. the statement that
space between two
is
one
infinity is twice or thrice

difficulties
another
infinity, certainly
will lead to
that are
beyond the student's
Moreover, an angle is not a space (it is not grasp. measured in square units), but only the (partial) boundary of such a space.
The incompleteness
of
angles usually
to
many definitions becomes apparent when they are

angles,
reflex
or faultiness of
applied
straight
angles,
or
angles
greater than 360.
This
test
shows the limitations of
the definitions that are bas^d
upon
inclination, diver-
gence, direction, etc.f

is the simplest liae possible. " advertised definition, An angle is the figure formed by two straight lines diverging from a point," has the same drawback. Moreover, it is most unpedagogical for the reason discussed on page 74.
*
t
E.g. a straight line
The widely
DEFINITIONS
Plane.
71
the term
Similarly no
definition of
plane
from objections, and the endeavors of some of the greatest mathematicians to formulate such
exists that is free
a definition have proved to be futile. The commonly used definition of a plane is a theorem, and the only
way
to justify its acceptance
would be
to consider
it
as
a geometric axiom or postulate. " plane is the locus of a point equidistant from two fixed points" involves "locus," a term that is studied
much
later.
"
The sum
total of all
perpendiculars that
"
can be drawn
to a given line at a given point
(Fourier)
makes use
of the
term perpendicular, which, in turn,
needs plane for its explanation. " A surface that in fts entire extent has only two dimensions" is vague an.
I
passing through a on another straight line, it generates a plane" uses mechanical ideas and leads to difficulties when the moving and the fixed line meet at infinity, etc.,
fixed point slides
uses dimension.
"
If a straight line
There
exists
no exact
definition of the
is
term plane.
Surface.
surface
ary of a
solid.
No
be
usually defined as the bounddoubt certain surfaces are boundaries
of solids, but there are others
which
cannot
considered
such, as for instance the surface
represented in the annexed dia-
gram
(Mobius
is
leaf).
* This surface
of the other. __
obtained
would be impossible to make by joining AB and CD, the opposite sides

It
of a rectangle, so that the lower
end of each
line
touches the upper end
72
boundary of a
which
solid,
is
this surface the
solid, as
becomes
ap<
parent
if
we attempt
to color that side of the surface

in
contact with
the
side
while leaving the other white. The surface has
Hence
consider
if
we attempt
only one side. to be rigorous, we cannot base the
definition of surface
it
upon the boundary notion, but
mq
the limit of a solid of vanishing thickness a notion that cannot be considered for school work.
PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF THE DEFINITION

Pedagogic value of formal definitions.
errors
Indefinite
and
variable use of technical terms has been a source of
and misunderstandings
in
many
down
sciences, espe-
cially those of philosophic character,
and consequently
exact definitions
the absolute necessity of laying
has frequently been pointed out. In elementary mathematics, however, the terms used are so definite that misunderstandings about their meaning will scarcely ever arise on account of lack of good formal definitions. The
difference between a straight line and a curved line,
between a binomial and a trinomial, between a trapezoid and a parallelogram, can be fully comprehended
by persons who are not

tions of these terms.
familiar with the formal defini-
The
great emphasis put
upon the teaching
of formal
definitions in secondary schools is therefore usually de-
fended, not on account of the importance of knowing these definitions, but on grounds of the " logical train-
DEFINITIONS
"
73
ing
it is
said to give.
While
it
must be admitted that
this study could
be made such a training in logic, it is unfortunately very seldom developed in such a way in our schools. In a large number of cases, the giving of
definition is simply the verbatim repetition of a
number
of words.
sary to
To be make the
to
a logical exercise,
it
would be neces-
students themselves formulate these

that the average student
definitions.
Even assuming
do
this, it
is
were able
to
evident that he could do so
only after he had acquired a clear notion of the thing be defined. Formal definitions would then form the
end, and not the starting point of the study of a term. They would be studied, not for the purpose of conveying
to the students the
meaning
of a
word or
thing, but
which they afford. Such work would undoubtedly have a certain value; but we should not forget that not all definitions are fit
merely for the practice in formal logic
for such exercises,
and that the matter
is
really
some-
what foreign
elementary
to
and not necessary
for the study of
Hence the study of formal geometry. should not be overdone. To judge from the definitions
prominence given to
set
this
topic
by most examination
papers by examination boards and colleges, it seems that the value of formal definitions is greatly overrated.
definition is not necessarily
an explanation.
logical definition is a description that distinguishes a
thing from all others. It enables us to recognize and to identify a certain thing as such, but it is obvious that
such an identification does not necessarily explain the true nature and the real character of the thing. We
74
accept the following statement as a definition of an " An angle is a figure formed by two rays divergangle
may
ing from a point." This definition may enable us to recognize an angle as such, but it would not give us the
slightest notion of
what
to
really constitutes
an angle.
It
would not enable us

work.
apply
this
concept to further
purely external, leading to identification of a thing, but not to an understanding of its true character.
Formal
definitions
are often
Taking
this
fact in
connection with the firmly ac-
quired habit of students of accepting and repeating words without understanding their meaning, it is not surprising
that students
may know
a formal definition of a word,
without having a clear notion of its meaning. Hence, explanations of terms are really more important than definitions, and every new term should be fully explained and
essential
its
meaning
illustrated
Familiarity with technical terms one

prerequisites for
by concrete examples. of the most

Small as
effective study.
the value of formal definitions is, it must not be inferred therefrom that the study of terms in general may be neglected. On the contrary it is most essential
for further study,
and a number of students who can
reason logically fail because they are slow in acquiring a full and clear understanding of the space-concepts. Others again have difficulties in retaining such notions
even
mon
least
they originally understood them. It is a comexperience to find in the upper classes students
if
whose notions
hazy.
of the term
"angle" are
to say the
Such an able mathematician as Professor
DEFINITIONS
75
six
Minchin narrates that he studied
books of Euclid
without knowing the real meaning of the word "angle." It is a very easy matter to make every student in a class understand the meaning of the term "similar
"
polygon
in the
and
yet, a
few weeks
after,
some students
same
class will believe that mutually equiangular
polygons are similar.

rarely produce that with terms that is absolutely necescomplete familiarity sary for placing a student in the most favorable position for attacking demonstration work. To have only " one
difficulty at a time,"
A single explanation of a term will
terms must be made so familiar to
the student that he can recognize the nature of a diagram in any position without any mental effort, and that the
names call up automatically the proper mental images. The methods for obtaining such familiarity with technical terms consist principally in the solution of simple
exercises referring to these terms.

of such
few
illustrations
methods
will
be given in the following sections.
THE TEACHING OF THE INTRODUCTORY

DEFINITIONS
General remarks.
The
attitude of
the student to-
ward any new subject is usually one that ought to make the introductory work in geometry comparatively easy. He brings with him a considerable amount of curiosity
that produces interest.
He
is
subject by previous bad experiences.
not yet biased against the Do not kill off
the natural interest by emphasizing words, and making the student repeat phrases which he does not under-
76
stand.
not insist upon a verbatim recitation of Do not dwell too long upon difficult every terms that are used very little. Use the heuristic
definition.
Do
method as far as possible; make the recitation lively and interesting, and try to avoid the impression that
geometry
is
a study of words.
The
difficulties
which were discussed
in the
preceding
chapter are very pronounced in the study of the introductory definitions, and a bad start might unfit the student for further work.
Surfaces and lines.
It
would be a mistake to men-
tion in a secondary school the difficulties that are inhe-
To rent in such definitions as surface, plane, line, etc. the beginner a surface is a boundary, as the boundary between a window pane and air, and a line is a boundIn particular, point out that in the ary of a surface. of a line (as the annexed one) not the black diagram
mmmummm^
wm
i^|^
;
MMK R
line AB, but the boundary between white and black is

is
a geometric line
that there
a line above the black,
and another one below the black.
Do
mate term.
definite
*
not define straight line, but assume it as an ultiPoint out the distinction between a line oi
and a
line of indefinite length.*
for a line of definite length,
Unfortunately the English language has no generally accepted term and the terms used by some authors, e.g.
segment, have serious objections. The writer uses a graphic way of pointing
A
@
'
123
out this difference.
Lines of definite
-^
length have ends marked by little cross marks, as indefinite length have no such marks, as CD.
AB
while lines
oi
DEFINITIONS
Angle.
77
Explain an angle as a rotation, by using a
material contrivance that actually shows a rotation of line. pair of compasses, or, better, several pairs
hands of a toy watch, or even a book may be used effectively to show that an angle is generated by a rotation, and that the amount of rotation,
of different sizes, the
and hence the angle, does not depend upon the length of the sides. Such illustrations will show clearly what
an angle really
is,
and explain the meaning of straight

with the notion
angle, reflex angle, etc.
Methods
of angle
of familiarizing the student
and related terms.
One
is
of the
most essential
prerequisites for further study
with technical terms.

section,
As
the student's familiarity pointed out in the preceding
such familiarity cannot be obtained by the study of words, but by actual work involving these
The simplest exercises would consist (a) in the student draw the various figures, as an acute having angle, obtuse angle, adjacent angle, etc., and (6) in
terms.
requesting him to name various figures which are drawn at the board. Then should follow exercises of more
complex character.
1.
Three classes
of
exercises
are
available at this stage of the work, viz.:
Numerical Exercises.
2.
Drawing
Exercises.
3.
I.
Laboratory Exercises. " Numerical exercises involving the term " angle and
related terms.*
"
Most
exercises of the following
list
" * The found in this book are given principally to assist originals the teacher in framing for himself questions of this kind. Hence such
78
;
should be done quickly and orally the teacher drawing the diagram at the blackboard and assigning numerical values at random. teacher who has had no previous
experience should make himself quite familiar with such questions in order to be able to extemporize such
problems whenever necessary. A few of the more difficult problems

for written
may be
home work.
It is, of course,
assigned usually not

;
necessary to solve every exercise of the following set and on the other hand, if more should be needed, it is a very simple matter to enlarge the list.
a.
Exercises to familiarize the student with the nature
of the angle.*
(Request answers in various units,
straight angles.)
as,
degrees,
right angles,
Ex.
4
Find the angles formed by the hands of a clock at
P.M.,
P.M., 6.30, etc.
Ex.
2.
What
northeast;
angle is formed by lines drawn towards north and towards S. and S.E. towards N.W. and S.W. ; to;
wards N.N.E. and N.,
etc.?
Ex. 3. Over what angle does the large hand of a watch sweep in 10 min., 15 min., 30 min., 45 min., i hr., etc.? Ex. 4. Over an angle of how many degrees does a spoke of a wheel sweep when the wheel makes \ of a revolution, \ of a revolution, 2 revolutions, etc.
?
Ex.
into
5.
How
large
is
each angle at the center
if
a pie
is
divided
5, 6, 8, etc.,
equal parts?
exercises only are given as relate to
books, or such as the teacher in the class.
is
work generally neglected in textfrequently called upon to extemporize
* In order not to increase the bulk of this work unduly,

are stated with the utmost brevity.
many exercises
DEFINITIONS
b.
79
Addition and subtraction of angles ; adjacent angles.

6.
7.
Ex. Ex.
Read by
three letters
Z#,
b,
-f c, c
+ d, a +
to
-f c, etc.
Which
angles
are adjacent to
Z.BOC,
Z.COD,
to
Ex.
8.
Ex. 9. Find a.
In a similar diagram
AOE =
b
c
120
and a
d.
Ex. 10. In a similar diagram a Find Z^, etc.

r.
id and
80.
Supplementary angles and straight angles.

ii.
Ex.
Find the supplement of 60, 30, 10, \ rt
Ex.
12.
which angle
is
In the annexed diagram, if the supplement of Za, of
A OF
is
a straight
of
line,
), ol
AOD^
(a
^ (0 + ^
-f
c -f
O,
etc. ?
8o
Ex.
values
13.
In a diagram similar to the preceding
Assign
to
:
numerical
the
or
literal
angles
in
Require the this angles below:
value
of
the
column
a, b,
c, c,
d
e
a, b y
d
e
AOD.d
AOC, AOC, b,
Qr\eia =
b
c,
BOD
c
FOD
and require
= d=e,
a
e
etc.
etc.
d.
Complementary angles and right angles lead to ques-
tions quite similar to the preceding set.
(Make Z
AOF
90.)
e.
All angles formed at a point.

14.
Ex.
Assign values to
Require values of
a,
b, c,
d, e
a,b
a, b,
C)
Reflex
Z AOC
Z.
Reflex
A OE
Reflex
Z.AOC,b
etc.
Z.a
Ex.
b
15.
=c =d=e
etc.
In a diagram similar to the preceding one, find Find , if a = b = c = d, and and/" = 20.
<z,
if
a=
40,
DEFINITIONS
8l
To practice the term " vertical angles" and to make some more difficult calculations. (The theorem of vertical angles should not be assumed for these questions.)
f.
Ex.
6.
If
AD, BE, and CF
are straight lines meeting at
find the vertical angles of each of the following angles COE, a b, e + d.
a,
c,
BOD
Ex.
17.
Assign values
Require values
AOE,
c,
c,
d,
BOD
AOC
a,
DOF.f
d, e,f b,d,e
a, c
f,d AOC, COE

(Similarly for 4 or 5 intersecting lines.)
BOD
82
g.
To become familiar with
1
the term "bisecting!*
the bisectors of a pair of complementary adjacent various numerical values to one of these two angles, angles, assign and require the angle formed by the bisectors.
Ex.
8.
Draw
Ex.
19.
From
truth about the angles formed
the result of Ex. 18 find (by induction) a general by the bisectors of a pair of comple-
mentary adjacent angles. Ex. 20. By assigning a
literal
value (e.g.
m)
to
one of a pair
of adjacent complementary angles, prove that their bisectors always include an angle of 45.
Ex. 21. Form three exercises corresponding to Exs. 20 for a pair of supplementary adjacent angles.
18, 19,
and
Ex. 22. Form three exercises corresponding to Exs. 18, 19, and 20 for the bisector of an acute angle and the bisector of the reflex angle formed by its sides.
Ex.
23.
Form
similar exercises for the bisectors of a pair of
vertical angles.
Ex. 24. Draw two right angles ABD and CBE, each adjacent to an angle ABC. Assign numerical values to Z.ABC and require the
value of
DBE.
Derive (by induction) from the preceding exercise a
Ex.
Ex.
25.
general relation between

26.
A ABC and DBE.

result
Prove the preceding
by making
Z.ABC = m.
in
Ex.
27.
Modify Exs. 24, 25, 26, by drawing one or both perpen-
diculars in a direction opposite to the one
assumed
Ex. 24.
at
this
2.
Drawing
exercises.
Although students
work are not acquainted with any problems of construction, it is an easy matter to show them, without proof, some simple constructions upon which drawing exercises may be based. The following exerstage of the
cises are
based upon two constructions, (a) the bisec-
tion of
an angle, and () the construction of an angle equal to a given angle.
DEFINITIONS
Ex.
28.
83
Bisect an acute angle, an obtuse angle, a reflex angle, a
straight angle.
Ex. Ex.
Ex. Ex.
29.
Divide a given angle into {a)
4, (6)
8 equal parts.
30.
31. 32.
Construct the supplement of a given Z.A.

Construct one half the supplement of /.A.
Construct a right angle.
Ex. 33.
Construct a perpendicular to a given line at a given point.

Construct the complement of a given acute angle.
Ex.
34.
.
Ex. 35 Ex. 36.

Ex. 37.
Construct one half the complement of a given acute angle.
Construct the supplement of the complement of a given
acute angle.
Construct the complement of the supplement of a given

If
obtuse angle.
Ex.
,
38.
and
Z.
are given angles,
draw
(180
39.
A),
(90
B),
Z~, Z
(180
30',
^),
Z (A -f B), Z +
(90
A,
.
|)
Ex.
67
Draw
If
angles of
90, 45, 22
135, 270, 225,

45
30', etc.
Ex.
40.
A
%,
and
are given angles,

2
draw angles
-f-
A,
l + B, d +
d*,
A + ?,
3A +
45*,
4^-90%
,
2A$B)
Ex. 41
.
etc.
Draw
the supplement of 2 A, of
A
,
of
Ex.
Ex.
y
42.
Draw Draw
the complement of
24
,
of
*B
,
A + B, of A + B * * A -- etc. of
90
,
2
:
43.
the vertical angles of the following angles
A,
4 A + B,^ + 2,
3.
jgo
A, 360
3 A, etc.
Laboratory exercises. Hardly any other work impresses upon a student the true meaning of an angle as
well as the actual
measurement by means of a protractor

its
or transit instrument.
so small as to
make
Since the cost of a protractor is use possible in every school, this
84
In using a protracinstrument only will be discussed. tor, however, the teacher cannot be too emphatic in pointing out that work done with this instrument is not
true geometric work, but merely drawing.
Otherwise
students will not see the necessity of using ruler and
compasses for constructing an angle of 135,

a protractor gives the result so
general, the protractor
etc.,
when
In
much more
:
easily.
may
be used for two classes of
exercises, viz. those that require
(a) the construction of
some angle. the measurement of angles. (b)

Ex. 44.
Construct an angle of 20, 75, 88, 145, 170, 250,
280,
etc.
I
Ex. 45. Draw a triangle having one side equal to two adjacent (nearest) angles equal to 40 and 70.
Ex.
46.
inch and the
Draw
quadrilateral
ABCD
CD =
having
i
AB =
70,
inch,
ZJS
80,
BC =
ij inches,
Z C = 100,
inch.
Ex. 47.
inch,
Draw a
Draw
quadrilateral
ABCD
ZC=
=B 100, BC = 2
48.
inches,
having 120.
2
A=
AB =
A=
Ex.
/.
AAC
C.
having
AB =
inches,
Z.
50,
B = 70,
and measure Z
Ex. 49. In triangle ABC measure Z C if /. A - 50, and AB (a) i inch, (b) i\ inches, (c) 2j inches.
Z B - 70,
Ex.
50.
Draw
Try
C=
75,
AB =
a quadrilateral i inch, 2 inches,
ABCD
having
A=
100,
B=
90,
BC
and measure Z D.
truths from Exs. 48
Ex.
51.
to get
some general
and 49
(by induction).
It is possible to solve by drawing many problems that are usually given in trigonometry, such as the finding of heights, widths of rivers, etc., although such a detailed
DEFINITIONS
85
statement would rather belong to a course in concrete geometry than to a course in demonstrative geometry.*
FURTHER ILLUSTRATIONS OF TEACHING

DEFINITIONS
Angles formed by parallel lines and a transversal. In studying the annexed diagram, the student should of course be able to recognize quickly
as
the relations of such pairs of angles He should I and 5, 3 and 6, etc.

also be able to
name
or
of
quickly the
other angle,
if
one of a pair of
a
pair
etc.,
corresponding,
of
is
alternate-interior,
angles,
mentioned.
But
to stop here
would be
insufficient.
He
in
should be
able to recognize angles of the
same kinds
diagrams
that are incomplete, or that are complicated

tional lines, special
by addiemphasis being placed upon dia-
grams that occur
later.
Thus
a student should recognize
* In some school systems concrete geometry is taught in the grammar schools as a preparation for the demonstrative courses in the high school. One of the chief functions of such courses should be the thorough familiarization of students with the geometric concepts.
consist of
Such a course should "doing" and not learning facts. Drawing, counting, the making of plane and solid models, paper folding, graphic methods, use of
make the student thoroughly familiar with geometric terms, and give him a store of ideas to draw from in demonstrative work.
cross-section paper, etc., should
Unfortunately, however, a measurable increase of the student's math* cmatical knowledge is sometimes chiefly aimed at, with the resulting
dislike of the student for the subject.
86
diagrams the character of angles and 6, etc.
I
in the following
2, 3
anc
and
4, 5
/V
10J
L
L
r
Projections.
The mere
reference
to
the
annexed
able
diagram
is
not sufficient.
The student should be
M
I
to construct projections of various lines, as, e.g.>
AB,
CD,
EF
GH, upon
line
XY.
He
should construct the
H
-M-
DEFINITIONS
various sides of an acute triangle projections of upon AC, upon upon the other sides, as
87
ABC
AC,
AB
BC
AB
upon BC,
etc.,
and construct similar
figures in
an
obtuse triangle.
CHAPTER
PECULIARITIES OF
VI
THE PRELIMINARY PROPOSITIONS

propositions.
The
mental
preliminary
The
most
"
funda-
straight propositions in geometry, such as " or " the complements of equal angles angles are equal are equal," are frequently designated preliminary propo-
These preliminary propositions have certain peculiarities which make them less adapted to produce
sitions.
an understanding of geometry than are the theorems

that follow.
In the first place, these propositions state facts which are so self-evident that the beginner does not see the That right angles are equal, necessity of proving them.
or that only one perpendicular to a given line can be drawn at a given point, are facts so obvious that their
certainty does not appear to
strations of
become greater by demon-
any
sort.
In the second place, proofs of exceedingly simple facts are often difficult, and hence it is not surprising
of the demonstrations given for the preliminary propositions are not the same simple deductions that are usually employed in geometry, but rather
that
many
artificial
devices.
To
the beginner such

88
proofs
fre-
quently appear as unintelligible, complicated statements,

the truth of which
is
89
far
more doubtful than
that of the
theorems
to
be proved.
of presentation.
Usual mode
is
Although absolute rigor
utterly unattainable when presenting this subject in a secondary school, many textbooks sacrifice pedagogic considerations in the attempt to present the preliminary
propositions rigorously.
Whether
or not the student
can fully comprehend the presentation seems to be a matter of minor importance with some authors. " We must have rigor, absolute exactness, training in logic
first day on, otherwise," so these dogmatists " the student will be hopelessly led into the habit claim,
from the
of slipshod thinking
from which no further training can

is
redeem him."
This striving for rigor
responsible for the highly artificial character

textbooks.
undoubtedly and the
complexity of the preliminary propositions as given in a

great
many
In proving, for instance, that the exterior sides
(BA
and
and
BD) of CBD) are
supplementary adjacent angles

in
(ABC
the
line,
same straight some textbooks

terior
pro-
duce one of the exsides
(AB)
through the vertex, and demonstrate that the prolongation (BD ) must coincide with the other exterior side
1
(BD) somewhat
as follows
The two angles
(ABD
and
ABD \
l
being both straight angles, are equal.

1
Subtract
from these equal angles the angle ABC, and the remainders (CBD and CBD ) must be equal. Since
90
angles
and CBD' are equal and have one sidfe (BC) common, their other sides (BD and BD') must
coincide, etc.
CBD
Such a proof
is
intended to introduce a student into

!
the spirit of geometry Hundreds, if not thousands, of students have been obliged to "know" this proof, i.e.
to
know
for
by heart, nobody can comit
prehend
it
fully.
If the equality of
the large angles
(ABD
and
ABD )
1
is
admitted at the very
start,
does
not the coincidence of
BD
from these angles,
in precisely the
and BD' follow directly same way as from
the last pair of angles (CBD and CBD')? What is the object of obtaining the three equations, and subtracting
But even this simplification would equals from equals ? not make the proof free from objections. Why is one of the exterior sides produced at all ? Does not the
definition of a straight angle, without
any further proof,

lie
establish the fact "that the exterior sides
in a straight
line?
In a similar spirit many books extend arguments that could be stated in three lines to a length of a page or
more, but at the same time commit some blunder that

invalidates the entire argument.*
*
An
proof of the theorem

ular can be
instance of this kind, found in a widely used text, is a very long From a point without a line, only one perpendic:
drawn upon the
line.
The proof
rests
upon the
fact that a
certain pair of equal adjacent angles cannot be right angles,
and
this
again
is
demonstrated by reference to the diagram in which accidentally
Ql
geometry convince everybody that it is almost impossible to avoid minor inaccuracies in this work, and that considslight
*vill
knowledge
of the foundations of
erations that
seem
to
be absolutely flawless
fail
when
ex-
scrutinized in the light of
modern knowledge.
An
ample
of this sort is a proof frequently given for the
proposition
upon AB assumed that
perpendicular can always be erected at the point A. To prove this assertion, it is

:
One
AB
can be rotated about

its
until
it
forms
a straight line with
original position.
it
natural as this assumption appears,
Simple and cannot be defended
upon purely logical grounds, and a perfectly consistent geometry has been constructed which rejects this possi<
bility.*
Of course many
is
will reply
"
:
But we can see

is
that such a rotation
possible."
This, however,
just
the point.
not exact mathematical argument. " Another weakness of these " rigorous books is the
"
"
Seeing
is
assumption of certain theorems, which are by no means more self-evident than those upon which so
silent
much time and work
are expended.
It is
inexcusable,
the dogmatists tell us, to assume that at a given point but the same only one perpendicular can be drawn
;
do not hesitate to assume that every angle has an assumption which includes as only one bisector a special case the proposition of the perpendicular just
critics
mentioned.
the prolongation of one exterior side of one of the angles does not coin
cide with the exterior side of the other angle equivalent to assuming the entire proof.
an assumption which
Poincar, Science and Hypothesis, p. 46.
92
In the hands of a judicious teacher, the harm done by a dogmatic text will be comparatively small, but
unfortunately some teachers try to outdo the textbook, and often extend this "absolute exactness'* to the mode
Every minor detail must be given exactly, and the conventional arrangement must be absolutely adhered to. As students are usually unable to do this
of reciting.
after
one
"
recitation, those
until
again and again

"
demonstrations are repeated nearly every student gives a
perfect
recitation.
It would of course be absurd to speak against exactness of detail in general, but this is not the place where 'Exactness in form should be the it should be taught.
result of exactness of thinking
and
if
this latter
can be
attained, the former will follow as a natural consequence.
EFFECT UPON THE STUDENT*
To appreciate Wrong impressions at the very start. the difficulties which dogmatic teaching puts into the way of the beginner, we have to realize that the student
has to deal here with entirely new ideas, and with methods of reasoning that he never employed before.
It is
is
difficult
task for the student, even
if
the subject
to give
compelled presented pedagogically. an absolutely exact account of logical montrosities, it becomes practically impossible for him to understand,
But when he
is
and
his failure here, in the beginning, will often
affect his
his
whole attitude toward the subject and toward The student will receive a wrong im future work.
*
Compare Chapter
III,
The Dogmatic Method.
93
He will not see pression of what geometry really is. that it is a field for thinking, for invention, for discovery, but he will consider it a system of hair-splitting
invented by pedantic schoolmasters for the annoyance of unfortunate students.
devices,
Loss of interest.
study things that
normal pupil does not care to he cannot understand, and conse-
quently he will frequently acquire a dislike for the And it is the more intellisubject at the very start.
gent to
whom
such work becomes most distasteful.
Naturally the interest, which he had during the first hours on account of the novelty of the subject, will soon decrease; and in many cases this interest, this prime
stimulus to further good work, will disappear entirely.
effect of
The most harmful upon mode of study. an extreme dogmatic presentation of the preliminary theorems will be the effect upon the student's
Effect
mode of study. The student, as pointed out above, is unable to see the meaning and the necessity of this socalled rigor. All he can see is that his recitation is never
satisfactory
unless
it
is
absolutely identical with the

;
consequently he studies his demonstrations by heart, and he and his teacher are satisfied. By studying in this way, the student begins
statement in the textbook
to
form a habit which
will
prove to be the most formi-
dable barrier to his further understanding of geometry.
He is led to study by using his memory mechanically, instead of relying upon his reasoning power, and it such a habit is once formed, it often makes a pupil unsuccessful in his entire mathematical work.
94
Importance
etry.
It
is
of initiating students properly into
geom
peculiar that in regard to the study of many students are likely to take extreme geometry Either they like the subject very much, and positions.
do good geometric work or they dislike it extremely, and are then usually unable to do the work properly,
;
although a great deal of memorizing and cramming may disguise this fact. But there is very little middle
The start in geometrical study quite often ground. determines these likes and dislikes, and hence every teacher should try his best to initiate the pupils properly.
After a student once wakes up to the true meaning, and the beauty and simplicity of mathematics, his But there further study is more pleasure than work.
are innumerable students
who
pass through the entire
high school without ever becoming really initiated into mathematical work. Their studies are painful labors,
that produce no beneficial and lasting results.
RATIONAL METHODS OF PRESENTING THE PRELIMINARY PROPOSITIONS

Theorems.
If
it
is
impossible to introduce a text-
book that presents the matter simply and briefly, the teacher should depart from the text, and simplify
matters.
ture,
it
If
is
the students are very young and immaadvisable not to give proofs for
some
of
these simple theorems, but to assume them as axiomatic.
assumed that all right angles are equal, there can certainly be no objeo
If
we remember
that even Euclid

tion to
95
assuming
this or a similar
theorem
in a
second
ary school.
Whenever
and short as
proofs are given, make them as simple possible, and do not wrap the ideas under-
" Right lying these proofs in a mass of technicalities. halves of straight angles, are equal, for angles, being
the halves of equals are equal/' and similar statements may not be absolutely accurate, but are sufficient to the beginner, to
ingless.
whom any
greater accuracy
is
mean-
As
a rule
it is
not necessary to insist upon the con-
ventional form in which these matters are represented.
Teach the conventional form later, possibly after the propositions on equal triangles, and be satisfied if the students grasp and know the ideas involved in the proofs
of the preliminary propositions.
Do
sitions.
not dwell too long upon these preliminary propoThe longer the teacher dwells upon these and
class will
similar simple subjects, the less the
under-
many students will after a while suspect difficulties where they do not exist, and will become utterly
stand, for
confused.
Exercises.
the meaning
of these theorems
It is
Familiarize the student thoroughly with and give them as many
applications as possible.
somewhat
difficult in this
connection to form a great many good exercises, but some can be formed. For instance, to familiarize the
student with the fact that complements of the same angle or equal angles are equal, the following exercises
may be
used.
96
Ex.
I.
If
ABC
the
and A'B'C are
right angles,
and Zi
Z2>
prove that
Z 3 = Z 4.
In
Ex.
2.
;
same diagram
I
Z3 = Z4
A
prove
= Z 2.
ABBC,
A'B'
B'C, and
C
Exs.
x
B'
(k
C'
B
Exs. 3 and 4
and 2
Ex. Ex.
that
3.
If
ABJLCD
and Zi
= Z2,
if
prove
4.
I
In the same diagram Z2.
AB J. CD
Z3 = Z4and Z3 = Z4,
prove
is
EX.S. IfZ ABC a right angle, and

is
ZA
the complei,
ment of Z
prove
Ex. 5 Ex. 6. If DEC and ABE are right angles, prove thatZ
=Z 2.
and
Ex. 6
Ex. 7. If A$ and 4 are
ABC
is
st.
Z,
Zi=Z2,
Z5 = Z6.
ri.Â, prove that
Ex.
8.
If -<4/?
and CZ? are
straight lines
and
^2
and 6 are right
angles, prove that
Z3 = Zs.
Ex. 7
Ex.8

In a similar
equal angles,
of the
to
97
way
exercises for the supplements of
etc.,
can be formed.
In particular the
exercise that corresponds to Ex.
same
the supplements angle formed by producing its sides, leads

6, viz.
the theorem of vertical angles.
CHAPTER
VII
GENERAL REMARKS
Book
proposition or original exercise.
The
preced-
ing chapters may be considered as preparatory to the Before discussteaching of demonstrative geometry. ing the details of such work it becomes necessary to decide what subject matter must form the bulk of our
instruction
if we accept the aims of mathematical Should teaching that are laid down in Chapter II. the principal part of the work consist of the study of
textbook
propositions
at
or
the
solution
of
exercises
Should we aim chiefly

constructions, or
at the learning of
proofs and
the ability to do simple original

instruction
thinking
Not so very long ago geometric
was con-
fined entirely to the former, viz. the learning of textbook demonstrations, while exercises requiring original
thought
were
practically
excluded.
To-day
most
some time to but the manner in which this

schools devote
principles.
original exercise work,
is sometimes done can be said to be consistent with sound pedagogic hardly
First of all there seems to exist a kind of superstition that the beginner cannot think for himself until he has
98
99
mastered a considerable number of formal propositions. " In accordance with this view some " standard text-
books do not give any exercises on the first forty or fifty pages, and some instructors for several months confine
even farther and recommend
themselves to textbook information solely. Some go first an entire course in
plane geometry without exercises, and then a review with " originals." Similarly some textbooks state in
their prefaces that all exercises
may, or
shall,
be omitted
on the
reading. quite commonly originals are considered as a kind of supplement, a useful but
first
Thus
superfluous appendix that has no close connection with the rest of the work.
It
seems
to the author that such a
view of originals
is
To make the exercise an unimporentirely erroneous. tant supplement indicates an absolute lack of understandand we may ing of the true function of such work almost say of the entire object of mathematical instruction.
in the
course in geometry should be principally a course methods of attacking original exercises the
;
regular book demonstrations should follow as by-products of such a course.
REASONS FOR MAKING THE ORIGINAL EXERCISE THE PRINCIPAL SUBJECT MATTER OF GEOMETRIC INSTRUCTION
i.
work.
Only original thinking represents true geometric If we concede that it is power and not knowl-
edge that makes the mathematician, and that thinking
100
into play the beneficial as-
and not memorizing brings
pects of mathematical study, then the importance of exercise work and the harmfulness of studying a great
many ready-made
It
proofs must be admitted.
to train a chess player
has often been remarked that nobody would expect by letting him study the accounts
many games, without ever giving him the The study of models would be of opportunity to play. some benefit to the player who has acquired a certain
of a great
skill in play,
lessons to practical application.

of
provided he had the chance to put such The same may be said
activity,
any human
whether
it
is
skating, baseball
by doing. in the study of geometry are students expected Only to learn to reason, not by practicing reasoning, but by
repeating other people's ideas. 2. Exercises form a much better introduction to the
playing, or flying.
We
learn to do
study of geometry than does the study of complex models. It is much easier to solve a simple exercise than to
understand a long and complicated proof such as is Exfrequently given on the first pages of textbooks. ercise work gives the beginner a much better idea of
the true character of geometry and prevents him from using mechanical modes of study. Instead of agreeing
with the old claim that only the study of several scores of textbook models enables the student to work originals, the writer believes that the opposite is true.
The
solution of a large
number
of simple
exercises will en-
able the student to understand clearly and to appreciate model demonstrations.

3.
IO1
Exercises arouse the interest of the student and
prevent him from becoming disgusted with the suh

ject.
For any normal youth
likes
to
"do," likes
to
The discovery of a simple accomplish something. mathematical fact is far more interesting, and far more satisfactory, than the studying of pages of information.
4.
Exercises can be
It is
much
better graded than textbook
almost impossible to arrange a textpropositions. book geometry so that the easiest proofs always occur first, and the rest follow in order of difficulty. Logical
sequence must necessarily the views of the author

quence.
more
or less, according to
disturb the pedagogical se-
order of originals, however, may be based upon pedagogic considerations solely. Even the sequence of the regular propositions can be
The
made smoother by
one theorem
abled to
inserting exercises that lead from
and thus students may be endiscover demonstrations which otherwise would

to another,
be absolutely beyond their capacity. How many students would discover the proof for the
equality of triangles that are mutually equilateral,
if
only textbook propositions were studied ? It is a simple matter, however, to connect this proposition by a series of exercises with the one that usually precedes it, viz.
the base angles of an
isosceles
triangle
are
equal.
After practicing the demonstration of equal angles
by
means
of this proposition in general,

:
we may
give the
following questions
IO2
1.
If
A&Cand ADC are

quadrilateral
two isosceles triangles on the same base,
AC, then Z.BAD =

2.
BCD.
If in
ABCD, AB = BC
and
AD = DC,
then
A=
3.
C.
If
two triangles
>C,
ABD and DBC have BD common, AB = .#
and
AD =
B
then
A=C.
\/
4.
If in
and
5.
#> =
Two
two triangles B'D, then Z ^

triangles
,4>
and
and CB'D',
AD =
C/?',
= ^ C.
ABD
CD'
are equal
if
their sides are
equal respectively.
Similarly the concurrence of the three altitudes of a

triangle
may be found from
the concurrence of the three
perpendicular
bisectors
:
of a triangle as follows
After proving the concurrence of the perpendicular bisectors FI,
DH, and
of
tri-
EK
of the
sides
angle ABC, draw FD, DE, and EF and ask

9
1.
What
kind of lines are Ff,

?
EK, and
DH with reference to
tri-
angle
2.
FDE
What
angle
FDE ?
therefore can you
tell
about the three altitudes of
tri-

3. If
103
any triangle
FDE
were given, could you construct an-
other triangle so that the altitudes of the original triangle would be the perpendicular bisectors of the required triangle
4.
?
T;
JD
What
therefore
do you know about

?
the altitudes of any triangle
Quite often
tion
it is
an easy matter
to discover a proof of a proposi-
placed immediately after another, while logical considerations make such an immediate succesThe second proposition should then sion impossible.
if
it
is
be given as an original immediately after the
first,
not-
withstanding that it occurs again later in the book. Such repetitions are not harmful, but on the contrary
very helpful.
Conclusion.
struction is the fact that the
The most common error of geometric inknowledge of book demonthe chief object of the study.
strations is
made
study of geometry should be primarily a course in the solution of originals and general methods of
The
The regular textbook propositions should be attack. treated as exercises, with this difference, that the facts
stated
by them should be remembered.
Exercises, however, should be studied not in order to be remembered, but in order that the student may familiarize himself with geometric working methods, which
will enable
him
to
The
student's ability
do other and more complex reasoning. and progress in the subject can
his ability to solve exercises that
be measured only by
well-known
facts.
are original to him, and not by his ability to repeat
104
THE TEACHING OF ORIGINAL EXERCISES

Prerequisite on part of the teacher.
If
is
it is
granted
that the teaching of original exercises

of geometric instruction, then
it
the main object follows that one of the
chief prerequisites for the successful teacher of the subject is the ability to solve exercises easily
and rapidly,
and
this
again requires a full knowledge of the various

of attack.*
methods
asset
is
if
People whose only mathematical

of mathematics,
so-called higher
the
even
this includes a
knowing of a certain amount good share of the
mathematics, are not fit to be teachers of mathematics. man who is not able to discover such simple matters
for himself
is
certainly not qualified to lead others to
such discoveries.
exercises in order to
teacher should also be able to construct geometric meet the particular needs of the
in his classroom.
moment, or the particular conditions

questions.
practice,
Especially should he be able to extemporize easy oral
Such ability is acquired by thinking and by and some concrete directions that are given in
later chapters
may prove
helpful to the beginner, f
Mode
of
procedure.
While
it
would be presump-
tuous to offer advice in this matter to the experienced teacher, a few suggestions may be helpful to the beginner.
In
to
many
the
instances
it
will
be advisable to
sequence of procedure: oral exercises, (b} blackboard work, (c) individual (a) work on paper. Oral exercises may be largely extemfollowing
* See Chapters
adhere
XI and XV.
See pp. 106, 115, 202.
105
porized by the teacher, who, chalk in hand, may often draw the necessary diagram at the blackboard, and ask Such oral work is well questions in rapid succession. adapted to easy topics, and if skillfully handled, wilV
stimulate interest and arouse competition in the class.
The
material for blackboard work,
by which
is
meant
here simultaneous work at the blackboard by a considerable number of students may be taken from the text-
books or from sets of previously prepared cards, each of which contains an exercise. Such blackboard work enables the class to cover a considerable
in a
amount
of
ground
does not produce the same interest and the same rivalry as oral work. It is, however, a much more practical way of correcting the
it
comparatively short time, but
work.
most frequently occurring errors than individual written Individual written work will be made easier and
its results
by previous blackboard work. It would be useless Construction of Exercises.

better
to en-
large any further upon the general directions for the Concrete illustrations are far teaching of exercises.
more
serviceable,
clusively devoted to these.
and the next chapters are almost exHere we shall discuss and
first
give exercises illustrating only the tion,* viz. Vertical angles are equal.
It
regular proposi-
was shown on page 97
in
what manner the pre-
to discover the proof liminary propositions may of the equality of vertical angles. In case this should be too difficult for some students, it may be made still
* The sequence of propositions assumed here Sevenoak's Geometry.
is
be used
that of Schultze and
io6
easier
by means of numerical examples. Assign a numerical value to one angle of the diagram and let the student find the values of the other, making, of course, no use of the equality of vertical angles. After a few
examples of this kind, assign a literal value, e.g. n, to one angle and proceed as before, thereby establishing
the equality of a pair of vertical angles. To construct exercises which illustrate the equality of vertical angles, take almost any exercise of the preced-
ing pages, and vary
it
by
one
introducing in place of
vertical angles.
or of several angles their
Thus
in the
annexed
of
is
dia-
gram instead " Which angle

troduce
the vertical angle to angle is the sum of Similarly in the same diagram ask for "the difference
asking, the sum

in-
ofAAOand BOCT'
/-EOD,
BOC, and
and
ask,
"Which
AAOB
DOE?"
of
AOC
and
DOE.
In the
-L
next diagram let Instead of asking
AB
i,
BC.
the
for
complement
of
ask for
the complement of Z 3. In the next diagram (three straight lines meeting at 0\ instead of asking for the sum of i, 2, and 3, intro-
duce
5,
i,
the vertical angle to

5,
2,
and ask for the sum of
angles
and
3.

Each of these exercises leads So in the last we may
assign numerical values to
107
to numerical questions.
angles
and
3,
and may
__
require the value of 5. It is a very simple matter to construct exercises

of this kind,
and the
fol-
lowing paragraph contains

a
considerable
number
of
originals
obtained in this
manner.
EXERCISES
Let three straight
Ex.
Ex.
lines
AD, BE, and CF meet

b, c, d, e,
in C,
forming the six angles, a,

i.
and/".
2.
- 40, UZ.FOB =
If
and Zc
35,
Z<:
find
Z.AOE.
find Z<z.
130, and
40,
Ex. 3. If and Z/= 3 S,
FOB =
find
d.
130,
Ex.
Z.b
4.
If
Z/=
Ab
60, and
25,
5.
find Z.d.
If
Ex.
and
are
complementary, find
Z d.
Ex. 6. If ÂOC = 140, and Z COE= 1 20, find Z BOD.
Ex. 7. and Z COE

Ex. 8. and Z /70C
If
=
If
150, 130, find Z^.
ÂOC^
find
Z.FOB=
Z
140,
<tf.
Ex.
Ex.
9.
=
If
140,
= 125, =4 andZ^
find Z*.
10.
Z/=
and Z^/= 100,
Ex. n.
,and
Z.AOE,
80,
find
Z/.
find
Ex.
12.
and Z*
40,
loS
Ex. Ex.
If
13. 14.
If
If
a = 2(Zr), and Z.e = 60, find Z AOC = Z C<9A; and Z #O# =

in
Z<r.
100, find //.
to the preceding
problems relating diagram we have two independent unknown quantities, it is obvious that two equations
all
we bear
mind that
in all the
connecting independent angles will determine

angles in the above diagram.
g
other
the
Thus we may increase number of exercises

limit, e.g.
almost without
Ex. 15. li/.a-/.b and / c = Z d find /. c

y
.
15,
Ex.
16.
^^
^
d
Ex.i;. and d
d- 20, find Z. IfZ0-Z=io,

c
20,
find
i:.
The number
cises
E
of
exer-
may
be
still
further
increased by noting that in each of the preceding examples not only the one required angle, but every angle of the diagram, may be found. *nay also vary the above examples by
We
expressing the given quantities not in numbers, but in

letters,
as
or
n.
Finally, each of these numerical problems may be changed into a theorem, thus producing another set of
more
E.g. Exs. lead to the following theorems

difficult exercises.
:
i,
2, 3, 4, 6,
and 7
Ex.
18.
Prove that
Ex. Ex. Ex.
19.
Prove
Prove
20.
Ab + Z<r = ZAOE. c =Z<*. that /.FOB that /.FOB - /.f= /.d.
21.
Prove that
Z/+ /.b + /.d~
180.

Ex.
22.
109
Prove that
Ex.
23.
Prove that Z COE"
Z AOC + Z BOD + Z COE = 360. - Z# = i8o 3 - Z ^<9C, etc.

:
few other theorems may follow Ex. 24. If Z/"= Z prove that Z^ = Z<r.
,
Ex.
Ex. Ex.
25.
UZ.FOB =
If Ztf
FOD,
prove that
Z/= Z*.
Z.c.
26.
27.
Z = Z*/ Zt, prove that b Prove that Z ^40(7 -f Z COE" - Z 6^ =

Prove
that
reflex
(Z #).
reflex
Ex.28.
AOE + refax
if
BOF+
CO4 =
720.
Similar exercises
lines
to
may be formed
four,* five, or
more
meet
in a point, but the
preceding illustrations seem
make it superfluous to give many additional examples. Hence only a few will be given, all of them relating
meeting
at a point O,
to five lines
and forming the ten

10.
angles
Ex.
Ex.
-f
i,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
and
29.
Prove that
-4-
Z3 + Z5 + Z7 +
30.
Z9= 180. Prove that ZAOC

Z
BOD +
1
.
COE -f ZDOF
-f
-f
Ex. 3 Prove that Z.AOD Z ^tf^ -f Z C<9/^ 4- Z /}<9 Z W/ = 540.
Ex. 32. osition for Ex.

33.
Form
a similar prop-
&AOE,
\iAOC
Z6 = Z8.
prove that
Ex.
34.
\iAOC
all
= Z COE-ADOF- Z.EOG, then

Ex.
then
35.
If
ten angles (i, 2
) are equal.
Zi=Z2 = Z3 = Z4, etc.

unknown
* The diagram formed by 4 straight lines contains 3 independent unknown quantities, hence offers a wide field for practicing the solution
of simultaneous equations involving 3
quantities.
no
GRAPHIC METHODS FOR PRESENTING GEOMETRIC FACTS
To teach students to think, we should in the early stages

remove
as far as possible all external difficulties. Students
who can
sis,
reason logically sometimes forget the hypothe-
or forget preceding parts of the proof,
and hence
are unable to continue.
To make such
forgetfulness
almost impossible graphic methods may be employed. The hypothesis may be indicated by colors, equal colors representing equal lines or equal angles, arrows denoting parallel
lines,
a small colored square indicating a Thus, in the right angle.
annexed diagram
the
two
blue lines indicate the equaland DE, the two ity of
AB
red arcs indicate the equality of A A and D, the two

colored arrows represent the
parallelism of
AB
and DE, and the two small squares
show that For the
/ând Care right angles.

results obtained in the proof
we
use white
crayon, equality of lines being indicated by equal crossmarks, equality of angles
by equal number of arcs, parallelism by arrows, etc. Thus the marks in the annexed diagram, which
are supposed to be that we have proved
drawn
:
in
white crayon, indicate
AF= CD, F =
CE,
Z A = Z D,
III
BF\CE.
overlap,
If
lines
we
use
braces.
Thus the
marks
annexed diagram represent the equality of AC and BC and

of the
y
and BD. the equality of If colored crayons are not available, white cross marks, etc., may also be
used to indicate
the
hypothesis,
AE
but
for the beginner a distinction be-
tween
hypothesis
and
proof
is
very helpful.
To
point out certain triangles or
polygons to the students, either shade them or mark their perimeters
by heavy
lines, as
A AEB
figure of the
and
L
KACva
if
the annexed diagram.
D
it is
Thus,
we transform one
mark the perimeter
into another,
advisable to
given area heavy, and to shade the resulting area, as

indicated in the annexed diagrams.
In other constructions given lines may be drawn thin, lines of construction dotted, and resulting lines heavy,
112
In complex constructions various colors

distinguish
It is
may be used
to
among
different lines.
impossible to mention all such cases, and the resourceful teacher will have no difficulty in enlarging
and modifying the above
directions.
CHAPTER
VIII
THE FIRST TWO PROPOSITIONS OF EQUAL

TRIANGLES
and as they the question is sometimes asked rarely, whether it is possible to devise a system of demonstrations without the use of superposition. If we consider,
tion as a rule
to students,
Can superposition be avoided do not appeal

only
Proofs by superposi-
occur
demonstration of equality which refers to any particular figure can be based upon nothing but the definition of equality, and that this
however, that the
first
definition involves superposition,
it
becomes evident that

first
superposition cannot be avoided unless we change the

definition of equality.*
Hence the
proposition of
etc.,
equal triangles, or equal arcs, or
equal ellipses,
must necessarily be based upon superposition. The study of superposition. The method of making
the student familiar with the proofs for the equality of
triangles
by means
be recommended.
of frequent repetition, can hardly Rather impart to him by concrete
* This remark refers to the usual school geometry only. There are systems of geometry that dispense entirely with the axiom of mobility and hence superposition. Such systems, however, require additional axioms, and the first theorem of equal triangles is usually made one of these axioms.
114
illustrations a
knowledge of the fundamental mode of the superposition of some parts whose procedure, equality is known, and the successive tracing of the
viz.
remaining parts of the
figure.
This
:
may
be accom-
AB = BC=B'C' CD=CD\ DE = D'E>, Z.B = ^B' A'B\ Z C = Z. C and Z D = Z. D Draw one figure, as ABCDE, in some color, e.g. in yellow, and indicate the
ABCDE
y
t r
f
plished by exercises like the following In pentagons and A'fi'C'D'E', let
given equalities
by cross marks.
When
to
the
stu-
dent applies
AB
him
A'',
a
let
draw
line
r r
yellow
on top of A B to indicate real physical superposiAfter a few extion, and so forth for all other parts.
ercises of this type, the student will understand superposition,
be able to apply it to the two triangle = s.a.s.). propositions (a.s.a. = a.s.a. and s.a.s.
and
will
It
is,
these proofs and to
however,"not advisable to dwell too long upon make them distasteful to the stu-
dent by frequent repetition and pedantic insistence upon unimportant detail. Rather pass over this topic hastily,
even
if
not every student can give a perfect recitation.
THE TEACHING OF ORIGINALS BASED UPON EQUAL

TRIANGLES
General remarks.
After the class understands the
meaning of the
first
two propositions on equal
triangles,
11$
easy oral exercises should be attacked. The teacher may draw the diagram on the blackboard, indicating the hypothesis by colored crayons.* Then the fact should
be brought out that equal triangles may be used to demonstrate the equality of lines and angles, and by a great
made familiar to the stuTo cover a large number of such exercises simuldent. The main taneous blackboard work is necessary.
many
originals this should be
result of all exercises should be the
METHOD
I.
The
equality of lines
knowledge of and angles is usually

its
proved by means of equal triangles. The teacher cannot emphasize this principle and
application too much.
Its
knowledge
is
far
more im-
portant than the knowledge of any regular proposition. Whenever the student is required to prove the equalor angles, the analysis should be started first asked by the teacher, later by by the question the student : " What is the usual method of demonity of
lines
strating the equality of lines
and angles
"
?
There are
only a few such principles that deserve the same emphasis, e.g. the methods for demonstrating parallelism of
lines, inequality of lines, proportionality of lines, equiva-
lence of areas, and a few others.
full
knowledge of
these principles and their applications forms one of the It would, however, be chief aims of geometric study.
a mistake to base a
"method" upon almost every

It is
theo-
rem
in the textbook.
Method
of constructing exercises.
a comparaoriginals
tively simple matter to construct a great

* See Chapter VII, page no.
many
Il6
equal triangles.
Select
illustrating the application of
two triangles in certain relative positions, as ABC and ABDy and determine by which methods we may obtain
the equality of two sides and the included angle, or the equality of two angles and the included side.
Angles may be equal by hypothesis, as complements of equals, as supplements of equals, as vertical angles,
as
sums of
equals, etc.
Lines
may
be equal by hypothesis or by the axioms of the
sums or differences of
equals, etc. obtain an application of the theorem (a.s.a.=a.s.a.) in the preceding diagram, we consider that is common,
To
AB
hence we have
to find various
and
tical
Z CAB = /.DBA.
making A 7 and Introducing

ways
of
Z
8,
= Z 2,
the ver-
of
and
2,
we get
the following hypotheses.
1.
/. i
2.
3. 4.
5.
6.
7.
= Z 2, Z CAB = /.DBA. Zi =Z2, Zj = Z4. CAAB, DB.AB, Zi =/ 2 CAAB, DBJLAB, Z$ = ^4. CAAB, DBAB, Zi =^3, ^2 = ^4. Z i = Z 2, /. 5 = Z 6.
.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Z i = Z8, Z CAB = Zi =Z8, ^3 = ^4. Zy = Z2, -^5 = 6. Z 7 = Z 8, Z C4> = Z CBD. AC1.AB,
Similarly we may illustrate (s.a.s. lowing exercises
:
= s.a.s.)
by the
fol-
14.
15.
16.
17. 18.
AC - DB, CAB - ZDBA. AC-DB, Z$ =Z6. AD-BC, Zi = ZS.

/.
Z? = Z&. AC=DB, ACA.AB,

list
AD= BC,
DBBA.
could be considerably extended by introducing the vertical angles of 3 and 4, or of CAB and DBA. Still more such exercises may be obtained by varying
This
the conclusion, thus requiring in one exercise the equality and BD, etc. C and in another the equality of of
AC
Hence one diagram

theorems, and as
it is
will furnish us
with a great
many
grams, it
an easy matter to find other such diamust be admitted that there is no lack of material. diagrams are given below; others
A few such
found
may be
in the next paragraph.
List of exercises.
sufficient
As
number
of exercises of this type,

list
hardly any textbook contains a and as the
subject
is
of utmost importance, the
given below has
been made very extensive.
Il8
It is of
course not necessary for each individual to
of
solve all the exercises, but for simultaneous blackboard
work a large number
questions
are
needed.
As
stated in the preceding chapter, it is sometimes advisable to prepare cards, each containing a problem, for rapid distribution of the questions.*
Examples on equal
classes
1.
:
triangles
may be
divided into six
2.
Numerical examples. Triangles that do not overlap.

Triangles that overlap. Student has to choose between
several pairs of
3.
4.
equal triangles.
5.
The
triangles
must be constructed.
6.
Several pairs of equal triangles are necessary for
the proof, f
I.
Numerical
exercises.
If
the pupils
of a class
are very
immature,
this
with numerical exercises.
subject may Only a few are given here
be commenced
;
but
if
more should be needed, they can be obtained by

any equal
\
substituting equal numerical values for
lines
or angles in
any of the exercises following.
The exercises are grouped according to diagrams, in order to avoid an unnecessary multiplication of figures. In the classroom, exercises referring to one figure should not be studied in immediate succession.
f
Only
five of these six classes are
given in the following
list
for the
last one, see p. 135.
lines are
In the following list, if the nature of the diagram shows that certain intended to be straight ones, this fact has for the sake of not always been stated. The teacher, in using such exercises, brevity
\
however, had better add this to the hypothesis.
Ex. i
I
.
^^40
Ex. If AB - 8 inches, BE = 8 inches, Z A = 80, Z E = 80, A ABC A BDE. prove Ex. 2. If /.DAC = 30, Z dS" = 30, ZZ?C" = 130, Zy4C# = 50, prove A ABC = A A CD.
Ex. 2
Ex.
:
3.
If
30, prove
2.
A ABC =
Triangles that do not overlap.
D
Ex.
4.
5.
E
Exs. 4-8
If If
Ex.
Ex.
AB = BE, and Z = AB = Aff, ACJLAE,

i
Z2, prove and
DEAE,
prove
6.
7.
8.
If
If
Ex.
Ex.
If
^^ = #; AB = BE, ^^ = BE,
and and
and
C^ = ^Z7, prove &ABC = Z3 = Z4, prove ^C= BD. Z 5 = Z 2, prove Z C =
I2O
Exs. 9-13
Ex.
Ex.
9.
If
If
If
10.
ii.
Ex.
Ex.
12. 13.
If
Ex.
If
= Z 2, prove AB = BC. = Z 6, prove A = C. ^3 = Z4, and ^ = Z6, prove /4Z) = Z?C /Iff = BC, and 4 = Z 6, prove v4> = DC. = Z8, prove ' A - "* = Z6, and Zs
and
:
AD = DCj AD = DC,
and
'.
Exs. 14-18
Ex.
Ex.
Ex.
14.
If
15.
^5 = BD, and ,ffC = .ff^ prove CA - ED. If AB = 5D, CA AB, and ED J. ^Z), prove
1
16.
If
Ex.
17.
If
If
Ex.
18.
= BD, AE = /?C, ^4-5 = ^/?,

^f^
and
and
and
^3=^4, prove C4 = ED. = CB, prove Z i = Z2. Z. i = ^5, prove BC
121
Exs. 19-23
Ex.
Ex.
19.
If
If
20.
Zi = Z2, and /5 = Z6, prove AB = CD. Z.DAB-Z.BCD, and Zi=Z2, prove AD = BC.
Ex.
Ex.
21.
22.
If
If If
Ex.
23.
Z6 = Zs, prove B = ZZ>. = Z6, Zy = Z8, prove that /?/> = BC. Z5 Z 6 = Z 5, Z /?^^ = Z. DCB, prove that AB =
^4> = BC, and
Z?C.
VA
Ex. Ex.
24.
If
F
Exs. 24-28
AB is
= 6 /'.
:
trisected,
Z i = Z 2,
/*
J.
^^, and
GFAB,
prove that
prove that /?"

25.
26.
If
If
AE^FB, Zi=Z2, Z3 = Z4,

/s =
Z6,
prove
fa&AD-BG.
Ex.
Z; =
Z8, and
^4/?
=
=
(S^,
^^ = BF.
"Ex. 27.
If
AD
- BG,
AF = EB,
= BGj
and Zi
Z2, prove that

prove that
DE =
Ex.
/**.
28.
If
^4-^= ,5, ^4/?
and
Z2 = Z9,
Exs. 29-33
122
Ex. /.A
Ex.
29.
If
=ZC
30.
>c.
AD.LDB, BC
BD, and Zi = Z2,

and
prove that
If
ADJLD8, BCJLBD,
Z
i
DA = BC,
prove that
^^ =
Ex.
31.
If
Ex. 32.
If
If
Ex.
33.
= Z2, and ^3 = ^4, = ^4, and /5 = Z6, /3 ^ i = ^7, and 2^5 = Z6,
DA = CB. prove that AB = >C prove that DA = ^(7.

prove that
Exs. 34-38
Ex. Ex.
34.
If
AD = C;
AD = C;
/4Z>
/Y?
= BCy
and
= Z 2,
prove that
35.
If
Ex. 36. = Z F. Ex. 37.
If
Z = C",
that
/^ =
If ^Z; = CE, ^C.
Ex. 38.
ItAD^CE, AB = FE,
_
i
= Z 2, Z 3 = Z 4, prove that AB = FE. FD = ^C, and Z 5 = Z 6, prove that

y
FD i. y4; BC AE
and
and Z 3
^4, prove
/3=
/4, prove
Z.B=
yk
Exs. 39-42
Ex.
39.
lfAD=C, AB-FE,
If
Ex. 40.
^Z>= C",
3= ^4, prove that B = ^4^ = FE, Z 5 = Z 6, prove that BC=FD.
Ex.4i.
prove that
If
123
and
and
AD =
FE.
CE,
CE,
AB =
If
FDAE, BCLAE,
FD.AE, BCI.AE,
F
^4 =
^5,
Ex.42.
prove that
AD =
FD = C
Z B = Z F.
VA
Ex. Ex.
43.
If
B
Exs. 43-45
cv
^
is
FBLAC, Z3 =
that
Z4,
the mid-point of AC,
and
Z I = Z 2,"prove
44.
If
Z.D = Z.E.
that ^4J9
FAC, ^3 = Z.4,AB= BC, and ^5 = Z6, prove
C".
Ex.45. I f ADJLDB, FBI. AC, = ^?C ^Z? = ^/f, prove
CEJLEB, ^3=^4, and
The following examples Triangles that overlap. contain triangles that overlap, and each diagram con3.
tains several equal triangles.
The
student has to choose
that pair of triangles which contains the angles or sides

to be proved equal.
A
Exs. 46-51
Ex. 46. Ex. 47.

Ex. 48.
If
AD L AB, CB
AD
JL
AB, and
AD = BC,
Z
then
A ABD
If
AB, CB J_ AB, and Z 3 = ^ 4,

Z6, and
fnen
AC = DB.
If
^5 =
AD =
CB, then
/2.
124
Ex. Ex.
Ex.
49.
50. 51.
IfZ5 = Z6, and Zi = Z2, then AC = DB. Z 5 = Z 6, and Z 3 = Z 4, then AC = Z>.
If If
Z5=Z6, ^C
bisects
/.DAB, and
bisects
C
Exs. 52-55
Ex.
52.
53.
Ex.
Ex.
= AE, = AE,
If
and
and
BC =
Z
i
54.
55.
MAC- AD, and

then
ED, then A ABD = = Z 2, then Cj = BD. BC = ED, then G = BD.
Ex.
B is the mid-point of AC, E the mid-point of AD, and

Z
AB =
^> = Z AEC.
C
A
Exs. 56-61
Ex.
56.
IfZi
If
2,
and
Z3 = Z4,
4,
then
Ex. 57.
and
Z 3 = Z 4,
then
A ADB =
&AEB.
Ex.
58.
59.
IfZs =Z6, and IfZs = ^6, and If Z5 = Z6,
Ex.
Ex.
Z>
60.
= Z 2, then A ADB = = ^5; then Z = Z 2. bisects Z Z?/4,ff, and

I
j
bisects
Ex.
61.
If AC BC, D is BC, then Z 3 = Z 4.
125
the mid-point of
AC, and
is
the mid-
point of
Exs. 62, 63
Ex.
Ex.
62.
If
AD - EB
= Z 2,
and Z 3
= Z 4,
then
A AEC =
&DBC.
63.
If
AD = EB, CD =
CE, and
Z 3 = Z 4,
F
then
A AEC
= &DBC.
C
Exs. 64-66
Ex. 64.
Ex.
65.
Ex. 66.
Z3 = Z4 then BC = /TE. \iAD-BE, Zs ^Z6, andZ3 = Z4, then AC = DF. If AD = BE, AC=DF, and Z 5 = Z6, then Z C = Z^.
If
I
AD = BE, Z
Z2, and
C
Exs. 67, 68
Ex.
67.
It
BCD
is
a straight
line,
AB = AC, AD = AE,
and
CZ>
and
Z I = Z 2,
then #Z?
If
= CE.
Ex.68.
Zi =Z2, Z3 = Z4,
AB = AC,
is
Straight line, then
AD =
126
In The proper triangles must be found by trial. 4. the following exercises the two parts whose equality is to be demonstrated may be considered homologous parts of two different pairs of triangles, and the student has
to
determine by
trial
which pair must be used.
Exs. 69-73
Ex. 69. Ex. 70.
If
AE = BE,
i
If
If
Ex. Ex.
71.
72.
If
and Z i = Z 2, then Z C = Z.D. Z 5 = Z 7, and Z i = Z 2, then Z C = Z Z?. Z = Z 2, and Z 3 = Z 4, then Z C = Z Z?. ZX4 = O9, and CE = /?#, then Z C = ZZ?.
Ex.
73.
If
Z6 =
Zs,
Z7=Z8, Z3 =
Z4, then
Z C = Z Z>.
A
Exs. 74-77
Ex. Ex.
Ex.
74.
75.
76.
If
If If
Z.EAB = Z.DBA, and Z$ = Z4, then ^Z? = #". ^C = BC, and Z3 = Z4, then AD = ^^. Z.EAB = DBA, Zi=Z3, and Z2 = Z4 then
?
Ex.
77.
If
C4 =
CB, and ^Z? and
BE
are
medians, then
^Z?
= BE.
A
I2J
Exs. 78-84
Ex. Ex.
Ex.
78.
79. 80.
Ifî =
If
^2,DJLA, and CEAE, then ^C=

Z2, and z 3
= /4,
then
.C =
^/?.
If
If
Ex.
Ex.
81.
/2# = AEj and Z5 = Z6, then EC = BD. Zi = Z2, and Zs = Z6, then ZC= ZZ>.
82.
83.
If
^^ =
Zi =
AE, and
Z.2,
Ex.
If
Z3 =
C = ED, then Z C = ZZ>. Zs, Z4 = Z6, then BD = EC.

and
Ex. 84.
5.
If
ZC=Z>, CBÊD,
must be
AB = AE,
then
CE^BD.
77^^ triangles
constructed.
:
This mode of
procedure
may be stated as METHOD II. If the lines

to
or angles
whose equality we
wish have
to demonstrate are not parts of equal triangles,
we
make them
is
parts of equal triangles
by drawing
used extenit is
additional lines.
This
an important principle that
is
sively in succeeding chapters.

cult to
lines
At
this point
diffi-
form exercises, but after studying parallelism of and the remaining propositions on equal triangles,
it is a very simple matter to form such examples. Of the four exercises following, only one can be done by the student at this stage of the work.
128
A
B
Ex. 85
Ex.
Ex.
then
85.
86.
If
AB =
AC, then Z.B =
ZC
and
If in quadrilateral
ABCD, AB = CD,
BC = DA,
,4,
Z^ = Z
87.
C.
Ex.
If in quadrilateral
AB
= DC,
88.
then
If
'C
Ex.
AB
ABCD, A A and C are rt. = DA. = CZ>, and Z = Z2, then ^3 = ^4.
i
and
Ex. 88
All the preceding exercises give both hypothesis and conclusion explicitly. By degrees, however, the student must become trained to understand exercises stated in
more complex form.

Ex. 89.
vertices
it
If
a diagonal of a quadrilateral bisects the angles whose
joins, the figure is divided into

If,
two equal
triangles.
Ex. 90.
from the ends of the base of an isosceles triangle,
equal distances be laid off on the arms, and from their ends lines be drawn to the opposite vertices, these lines are equal.
I2Q
There Importance of the exercises on equal triangles. another topic in the study of geometry that hardly deserves more attention, and that is more important to
is
the student than

triangles.
the applications of
this
the equality of
For,
in the
first,
method
is
used more than
succeeding chapters of plane geometry. Secondly, there is no other topic that introduces the student so fully and easily into the true spirit of geo-
any other
metric work.
It
is
a fact that
many
students
finish
courses in
geometry and pass examinations without ever becoming fully initiated into the real meaning of geometric work. The present chapter forms a critical point. Here the student should become fully aware what geometry
really
means and what

its
sort of
mental activity
is
neces-
study. the teacher should dwell upon this topic, and not proceed until every student who possesses normal
sary for
Hence
reasoning powers has fully mastered
it.
CONVENTIONAL METHOD OF STATING GEOMETRIC PROOFS

Since the majority of the preceding examples cannot be done orally, but must be written, it becomes necessary
to study the various conventional
ways
of stating geo-
metric proofs.
Symbols or words?
symbols
general,
in
still
Although the extensive use
of
geometry is at the present day almost there remain a few teachers and a few
books that employ hardly any symbols, claiming that
130
is
the teaching of English
one of the chief objects ot
geometric instruction.
It
is,
however, entirely unpedagogical to accumulate
difficulties.
The
use of
symbols makes the study of
geometry easier; hence let us employ them as far as they have been generally accepted. Our first aim must be the teaching of geometry, and the effect this teaching has upon the student's linguistic
abilities is
while
important
the
first
only of secondary importance.

is
Success in
aim
the absolute prerequisite of success in
the second.*
A Symbols of uncertain and varying significance. remarkable feature of mathematical symbolism is the fact that it forms an international language that can be
understood by any mathematician, no matter what his Unfortunately there is no absolute agreenationality.
few symbols, the most widely known the symbols for equality, similarity, and examples being Here not only symbols but even terms equivalence.
ment
in regard to a
differ.
In
America the equality
of
areas
is
called
equivalence and represented by the symbol =c=, while in continental Europe it is called equality and denoted by =. Figures that may be superposed are called in
* Moreover, geometric study does far more for the mastery of the than generally using symbols, or no symbols It does so by virtue of its accuracy and precision, and supposed.
mother tongue
For it is by improving in general the student's ability to think. an undeniable fact that many pupils cannot speak correctly because they cannot think correctly. They constantly use words and phrases
without
ter
having
any
definite
ideas
to
express.
(Compare Chap-
H.)
131
America equal
gruent (^).
),
in the greater part of
Europe
con-
The symbol
Europe
is
for similarity
little
(~)*
generally
employed
in
used very
in
America.
The
vincial
chief trouble arises
from the use of the term
"equality" in geometry.
The American
use
is
pro-
gives a meaning to this word in geometry entirely different from that in the rest of the mathematical subjects. Equality, thus used, refers
and
illogical, for
it
in
geometry
it
to
form and
size,
while in arithmetic or
"
If
algebra
has no bearing upon form.
equals be
in
added
to equals the
sums are equal" would be true
an
algebraic sense only, but erroneous when applied to geometric figures. Besides the symbol =0= is a difficult character to write.
change
to the
is
and the corresponding terms, Another provincial symbol that should be discarded
:
:
symbols =, ~, and ^, certainly most desirable.

is
The true meaning of this symand hence it should be replaced by = The bol is equality,
,
as used in proportion.
mere fact
tion of a
that
it is
new
read " as" does not justify the introducIf we should use different symsymbol.
bols whenever the words differ which these symbols represent, we would have to use at least half a dozen symbols in " " " as many for "equals ( ), just place of minus ( ) etc.
ferent parts of mathematics,
Certain other symbols have different meanings in difIn the e.g. the symbol =.
theory of numbers it denotes congruence of numbers, in algebra it is used to represent an identity.

* Leibnitz introduced the symbol ~, and this is the most widely used form, but some authors use CO instead in order to connect the symbol
with the
first letter
of the
word
(similis).
132
of the hypothesis.
The statement
ferent
There are two
dif-
ways of stating the hypothesis. The American method describes the given part so that a reader can understand it without seeing a diagram. He could draw
On the continent of the diagram from the hypothesis. the diagram plus the written statement constiEurope
tutes the hypothesis.
Things that are absolutely
obvi-
ous from the diagram are not written unless they are the essential conditions of the theorem.
Thus, an American text would say

Hyp.
Two
parallel
lines
AB
and
CD
are intersected
EF respectively in
state
:
by the transversal G and H.
While a German book would
Hyp.
AB
II
CD.
is
The German argument

the diagram shows that
transversal, that
is
it
that
EFis
y
a
it
meets
not necessary to say
AB in G and CD in H that AB and CD are straight lines,
since two letters always mean a straight line. From the viewpoint of science no objection can be
made
against the American way, but pedagogically the European way is preferable, for it frees the student's
of pedantic detail of
little
mind from a mass
value,
and
emphasizes the really essential part of the hypothesis.
Thus the student is led to better understanding. It will, for instance, be much easier for him to form a converse when the hypothesis is stated in the brief form, than when in the lengthy form.
133
must not be carried to such an extreme that doubts may arise. Thus lines cannot be assumed to be straight or to be perpendicular merely
this brevity
Of course
because they appear so. Statement of a proof.

angles)
is
The present topic (equal triwell suited for teaching the conventional very
form of writing demonstrations, and both here and later exactness of form should be insisted upon just as much
as accuracy of thinking. The form of the following proof
may be
useful to
those
who have had no
experience in teaching.
This
proof, however, does not belong to our present chapter, but to a later one.
Theorem. A line drawn through the mid-point of a diagonal of a parallelogram and terminating in two sides of the parallelogram is
bisected.
Hyp.
ABCD\**n.
AC is bisected at E. FG is a st. line. To prove FE - EG.

B
Proof:
ln&AGEandFC,
AE = EC.
Hyp.
Alt. int.
of parallel lines-
Z.
AEG =
.-.
Z CEF.
Vertical angles.
(a.s.a.
a.s.a.)
FE =
EG.
Horn, parts of equal &.
Q. E. D.
THE LAST THREE PROPOSITIONS OF EQUAL

TRIANGLES
Remarks about the
making
the
students
three theorems.
or
A
the
method
proof
of
of
discover
to
analyze
proposition relating
two mutually equilateral
134
triangles
(s.s.s.
= s.s.s.)
was discussed
in the preceding
chapter.*
The theorem of two triangles that have two angles and a non-included side equal (s.a.a = s.a.a) is omitted
in quite a
number
is
of textbooks.
to be
If,
however, the solv-
ing of exercises
metric study,
considering easily should be studied.
we how
the chief object of geocannot dispense with this theorem, and

it
made
may
be proved,
it
certainly
two sides and a non-included angle equal respectively is true As students occaonly under certain restrictions.
sionally
The theorem
of two triangles that have
apply this theorem as

true,
if
it
were generally
we ought
to
be able to show
them cases in which such a theorem would obviously lead to wrong results. For instance, we should obtain that
any
_.
line
drawn from the vertex of an

triangle
isosceles
into
divides
the
figure
two equal
triangles,
or that a
diagonal divides any isosceles trapezoid into two equal triangles. Similarly in the annexed diagram A
ABO
would equal
A A CO.
B
* See Chapter VII, page 101.
135
Triangles having two sides and a non-included angle equal, however, are equal if the other two non-in-
cluded angles
are not
supplementary.
somewhat
simpler condition which, however, does not cover as many cases makes the equal angles lie opposite the
greater sides.
Most textbooks, however, give only the

in
special case
which the angles are right angles, i.e. stating that the hypotenuse and an arm of one triangle equal the
corresponding parts of another. To make students discover the demonstration of this theorem we had
best
start with
the exercise
The
altitude
upon the
base of an isosceles triangle divides the figure into
two equal
triangles.
Exercises.
Since the
mode
of constructing exercises
has been fully explained in the preceding paragraphs,
we
shall not give
any simple
difficult
illustrations of the applica-
tions of the present theorems.
We
shall,
however, give
illustrate
a number of more
to
exercises, specially suited
the more ambitious

:
student,
which
the
following
METHOD
of
III.
If it is impossible to
prove the equality
of the required pair of triangles, prove first the equality
some other
pair, or pairs,
whose homologous parts will
enable us to demonstrate the equality of the original

pair.
This principle
is
very important, and students should
become
6.
fully familiar with it. Exercises requiring the equality of several pairs of
triangles.
136
F
E
B
Ex. 91
Ex. 91.
then
If
AG =
GD, CG - GF. and
all lines
are straight lines,
BG =
GE.
Ex. 92. If in polygon ABCDBF, FA, and A\\B DE, then Z. = Z C.
AB = DE, BC =
EF,
DC =
Ex. 93
Ex. 93.
If
AB = AD,
and
AC = AE, then Z BAF = DAF.

C
Ex.
94-
B, and
AF = ^, then AD =
137
Ex.95
Ex. 95.
If
AB
II
CD, then
AD = BC.
A
Ex. 96
Ex. 96. If diameter, then
AD = AC, DE = GH = IK.
CF, GH\\AB\\IK, and
AB
is
B
Ex. 97
B'
Ex. 97.
;
If in quadrilaterals
ABCD,
BC = B'C, CD = ^ ZX.
CD',
DA = D'A',
and A'B'CD', AB = A'B\ and AC = A'C, then BD =
A few
additional diagrams will facilitate the construction of
more
exercises of this type.
METHOD
we
Method for proving the perpendicularity IV. To prove that an angle

usually demonstrate that
it is
of
is
two
lines
a right one
equal to its supplemen-
tary adjacent angle.
For instance, to prove that triangle ABC is a right one if the median ~CD equals one half of BA we produce BC by its own length to E and A
ABC and prove the equality of AEC. This is easily done if we

\
consider that
CD = ÂE,
since
it
joins the mid-points of
AB and
EB.
\
B
This
illustration requires a
theorem
w hj cn
the student at this stage of

his
the
work does not know, but
knowledge
is sufficient
for the following exercises.
Ex.
98.
139
is
The median
The
to the base of
an isosceles triangle
per-
pendicular to the base.
Ex.
is
99.
bisector of the vertical angle in an isosceles triangle
perpendicular to the base.
Ex.
then
100.
If in quadrilateral
ABCD, AB = BC,
C
and /.A
= ZC,
ACJLBD.
D
Exs. 101-104
Ex.
Ex.
Ex.
101.
102.
If
Z.A
B, and
Zi =Z2, then
CDAB.
i
103. /?.F are medians.
CD is perpendicular to AB, if AE = BF, and Z = Z2. CD is perpendicular to AB, if Z A = Z /?, and ^4-E" and CD
is
Ex.
104.
perpendicular to
AB, if Z I = Z 2, and
AE and
#Fare altitudes.
CHAPTER IX
PARALLEL LINES
PROPOSITIONS ESTABLISHING PARALLEL LINES
Definition of parallel lines.
The
definition
that
is
in the
if, lying far produced. Various attempts, however, have been made to formulate other definitions which result in simpler proofs
:
most widely accepted
is
Two
lines are parallel
same plane, they do not meet, however
two most widely used dehave the same direction, or lines Both definitions, that are everywhere equally distant. while they simplify the proofs of the parallel theorems greatly, are objectionable from the scientific point of
of the theorems.
these, the
fine parallels as lines that
Of
employs the objectionable term direcso obviously redundant that it has to be rejected. Stilly occasionally, a new defender of one of these definitions arises, claiming that he has discovered a new definition of parallel which will simplify the
view.
first
The
tion,
the other
is
proofs greatly.
Demonstration of the fundamental theorem. Any arrangement of propositions that exists and that is exact contains one or several difficult proofs. Many American books consider first propositions relating to a perpendicular transversal and obtain then comparatively
simple proofs of the general theorems, but the difficulty
140
PARALLEL LINES
Is
14!
not avoided,
it is
simply pushed back to the proposiperpendicular transversal.

unnecessarily
large
tions relating to the
over,
we
obtain
an
More number of
it
theorems.
If
we
insist
upon a rigorous demonstration,
seems
that the Euclidean

It is
way has not been improved upon. true that Euclid presupposes the knowledge of a
is
theorem that
terior
not quite easy to prove,
viz.
an ex-
angle of a triangle is greater than either
remote
interior angle.
But
this
theorem
is
not so
difficult, if
we make
originals.
it
one of a series of
Considering
two
lines
triangles
formed by two
AD
and
CB
that bisect each
other,
we
find
EBD = Z
C.
Drawing now the

AJBF,
straight line
we ask whether
is
Z Cor
Z CBF
greater.
ask whether Z draw a new diagram (Z
Erasing the lines CBF is still greater than
AD
Z
and BD, we C, and finally
ABC
and
AB
produced) and
require a reconstruction of the entire proof. After the preceding proposition is firmly impressed upon the student's mind by numerous applications, the
fact
that equal
alternate
interior
angles
make
lines
can easily be obtained by means of numerical Let a transversal form the alternate interior questions.
parallel
angles a and
b,
with two intersecting whether or not it
lines,
is
and ask
possible that
;
or
Z a = 50, Z b = 60 Z a = 50 Z b = 150.
142
Referring to the next diagram, ask whether the proand CD (i.e. towards the right side longations of
AB
can meet
or or
*
if
= 60, = 40, = 50, a

P
= 50; =50; b = 50.

whether
(i.e.
Discover
BA
and
DC
the
or
left)
produced meet
a
towards
if
w
a
or
if
= 60, a = 50,
lines
;
b
b
Can the
50. meet at
= =
50;
all if
= 50, a = 60,
= 50 = 60 b
b
of numbers,
Hence, the lines are parallel for these particular sets and it is an easy matter to show that this
result is generally true.
The simplest exercises which illustrate Exercises. the preceding theorem are of course numerical ones. Assign numerical values to any two independent angles
of the complete diagram,
and ask whether
/
3 74
the lines
parallel. request student to prove the parallelism of the two lines if certain angles are equal or
are
Then
/
5
.
supplementary;
i
e.g.
Z 2 = Z 6, Z 7=
3,
Z 3, Z = Z 8, Z 7 = Z
Z
7
is
3 is the
etc.
supplement of
5,
the supplement of
Z 4,
In every case the student must try to discover the equality of a pair of alternate interior angles, and the
principal result of
work of
this
kind should be the
knowledge
of
PARALLEL LINES
143
usually proved
METHOD
means
V.
Parallelism of lines
is
by
of equal alternate interior angles.
knowledge of this principle is most essential, and the analysis of any theorem stating parallelism of lines should be commenced with the question What is the
:
usual means of proving two lines parallel ? Of course sometimes corresponding angles, or angles on the same side of the transversal, are employed, but
the above principle gives the most important method.
While
alternate
in the simpler exercises,
we use
vertical angles,
etc.,
supplements of equals, sums of equals,

interior
to
make
more complex exwe accomplish the same by means of equal amples Below are a few diagrams, each of which triangles. be used for quite a number of originals requiring may
angles equal, in
the demonstration of parallelism.
A
V
CONVERSES
General laws.
To
discuss the converses of the parallel
theorems, a few remarks about converses in general
may
144
be helpful.
pothesis
Usually
it
is
said that the exchange of hy-
theorem.*
and conclusion produces the converse of a Or if the theorem be represented by

:
If
its
A
:
is
B, then a
is b,
converse would be
If
is b,
then
is
B.
The converse of a valid theorem is not necessarily true, a fact illustrated by the converses of the following
propositions 1. If a polygon
:
is
regular, a circle can be circum-
scribed about
2.
it.
If
two parallelograms have equal bases and
alti-
tudes, they are equivalent.

3.
The
diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to
each other.
If a body of gas is compressed, it becomes hotter. Relation between converse, opposite, and converse of the
4.
opposite.
If the
If
its
theorem be represented by is B, then a is b

;
:
opposite would be If A is not B, then a

:
is
not b
and the converse of the opposite

If
is
not
b,
then
A is
not B.
These four theorems are connected in such a way that the validity of one of them always establishes the
validity of
another one.
Theorem
Opposite
*\
^
^v>
Converse
^^
is
Converse of Opposite
* This
not quite exact, see p. 146.
PARALLEL LINES
145
In the preceding arrangement the theorems are connected diagonally, i.e. : If the theorem is true, then the converse of the opposite is true.
If the opposite is true, the
converse
is true.
If true, the opposite is true. If the converse of the opposite is true, the theorem
is
the converse
is
true.*
These connections are

method.
easily
proved by the indirect

clearer
These general matters

crete illustration.
will
become
by a contrans-
Let a and b be two alternate interior
angles formed by two lines

versal.
I.
AB
and CD, and a
THEOREM
II.
CONVERSE
II
If
Za
= Z b,
ItAB
Then
IV.
CD,
Then
AB
II
CD.
Z a = Z b.
CONVERSE OF
OPPOSITE
is
III.
OPPOSITE
If
Za
Then
Z ,f AB is not
=
If
II
AB
not
=
II
CD,
.
CD.
Then Z #
we have
II, or
Z
and
is
To
establish all four theorems,

I
to
I
prove only
III, or
one of the following pairs: II and IV, or III and IV.
and
Obviously a knowledge of these relations
a great
* Some textbooks state that both the theorem and its opposite must be proved to establish the converse. This is erroneous ; the opposite
alone establishes the converse.
t
The symbol L
means
"is not equal to."
146
help in geometric work, e.g. if we find the converse ot a theorem too difficult, we may attack the opposite instead, etc.
Case of several converses.
If the
hypothesis of a
theorem consists of several statements, each of them may be exchanged with the conclusion, thus giving rise
A
to
be,
several
or
converses,
that
may
For
may
:
not be, true.
instance
If in triangle
ABC
= DF.
Each
condition of the hypothesis
may be exchanged
with the conclusion, thus producing three converses, of which the first two are true, while the third is not.
Law of converses. If the following three theorems are true, their converses must be true
:
1.
If If
2.
3.
If
A > B, then a > b. A = B, then a = b. A < B, then a < b*
truth of this assertion can easily be shown by applying the indirect method. Of course the same
* Or more generally
includes
:
The
If
A may
is is
be A\ or
is
A2
;
or
A n and
, :
this
all possibilities,
and the following propositions are true
If
If
A A A
Ai, then a Az, then a
a\
is
If
is
An
then a
is
On
then the converses are also true.
PARALLEL LINES
fact holds true of the propositions
147
which we obtain by
exchanging the first and last conclusion. Thus, after we prove that equal chords are equidistant from the center, that a chord becomes smaller if
its
distance from the center increases, and that

if
it
be-
comes larger
its
distance from the center decreases,
the converses of these propositions can be accepted as true without further proof.
While the Pedagogic value of the preceding laws. notions discussed in the preceding parageneral logical
graphs furnish undoubtedly very useful tools for geometric work and are very valuable to the teacher, it would
be a fatal error to teach general logical propositions before The student does not apprethe concrete theorems.
ciate these general facts,
nor will he as a rule under-
stand the meaning of such abstract theorems until he is well acquainted with a large number of concrete
illustrations.
Hence such matters should never come
in
the beginning of geometric instruction.
They may be
given in a review course, but even then more as supplementary matter than as an integral part of the regular
worjt.
Converses of the theorems on parallels establish the

equality of angles, if parallel lines are given. * of this kind is first proof always rather difficult,
if
The
and
the students are immature,

:
it
is
advisable to teach
If two alternate interior the opposite theorem first, viz. angles are unequal, the lines are not parallel. Logically
It should be
tulate (Chapter IV), while the direct theorems
noted that these converses depend upon Euclid's posdo not require it.
148
;
the converse would then require no proof at all for the beginner, however, a proof should be given, which, in
this case,
is
very simple.
moves some difficulties, number of propositions.

line
Such an arrangement reeven though it increases the

of
Exercises illustrating the converses
the
parallel
propositions can easily be classified as follows

:
be formed.
They may
1.
If
Numerical examples are adapted for oral work. two parallels intersected by a transversal are given,
assign a numerical or literal value to any angle of the diagram and require the value of all others. Construct
%
~-
two transversals intersecting one of the parallels in a

point, and assign values to any two independent angles and let the stu-
common
dents find
all
other angles.*
two parallel bisectors of certain angles, perpendiculars transversals, to a transversal, etc.~ etc.
Introduce
2.
Simple general examples.

preceding
In diagrams similar
students prove that
to those of the
class, let
certain angles are equal, others supplementary or complementary, that one angle equals the sum of some
other two. In other words, establish in a general form the facts which were represented numerically by the exercises of the preceding section.
Every exercise on pp. 107 and 108, Chapter VI, may be used as the basis of a corresponding exercise relating to the above diagram.
*
PARALLEL LINES
3.
149
topics.
Exercises preparing students for later

it
The
to
preceding diagram makes

find the
possible for the student to
sum
of angles a,
b,
and
c,
and may be used
lead
him
directly to the
theorem of the sum of the
angles of a triangle.
Similarly he
may
find the propo-
sitions relating to the exterior angle
of a triangle, to
opposite angles of a parallelogram, to the angles of a quadrilateral, etc.

4.
sum
of the
The number of originals requiring equality of triangles can now be greatly increased, as we have a new means of obtaining equal The diagrams on pages 117 and 122 maybe angles.
Equality of triangles.
used for the construction of a great
many
originals, that
assume certain
pairs of parallel
lines and require the equality of certain other lines or angles.
Thus, in the annexed diagram,
we may
If
say
||
AB
then
EF,
AB = EF,
and
EC =
DA,
5,
BC = DF,
etc., etc.
Combination of the direct parallel propositions and We may use the equality of certain their converses.
angles to prove the parallelism of lines and therefrom again deduce the equality of other lines or angles, or
we may
start
certain angles
from parallelism, obtain the equality of and triangles, and finally demonstrate
exercises illustrate
the parallelism of other lines.
The two
methods
:
following
these
two
150
Ex.
Ex.
2.
If
AC
||
DF,
AC = DF, and AD = #;
a triangle.
then
CB FE.
\\
Sum
of the angles of
Among
the various
by-products of the preceding methods of solving exercises are the theorem of the angle-sum of a triangle, the theorem of the exterior angle of a triangle, the
parallelogram propositions, etc. Hence students will experience no difficulty when analyzing the theorem of the angle-sum of a triangle.
The
originals
based upon
this
proposition, however,
may To
deserve a short discussion.
construct exercises relating to the angles A, B, and C of triangle ABC, we have to consider that the
three quantities are always connected by one equation, 1 80, and that -f- C viz., A -f consequently two other
(independent) equations will determine the values of the angles.

Since in the annexed diagram
if
all
A, B, and
are
given,
it
follows
angles are known that the twelve
angles of the diagram can be determined if two equations connecting independent angles are given.
PARALLEL LINES
15!
assign numerdia-
Thus
to find all twelve angles,
we may
ical values to
any two independent angles of the
gram, or
Z C=
and
we may make Z A 22, or we may make
= Z Fand Z ^4 = 90
may
I/A
\p/
+Z
<T
140,
etc.
For more
difficult
examples we
C\
use more complex equations, as
or
A + G - A + C=
Of course
a great
$= 240,
130,
2
C- B=
>
30, / = 100.
many
originals of entirely different

it
character
may be based upon this proposition, but would lead us too far to discuss them.
CHAPTER X
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS OF THE FIRST BOOK OF
GEOMETRY
HYPOTHETICAL CONSTRUCTION AND THE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE
Euclid proved the equality of the base angles of an isosceles triangle by applying the figure to itself so that each leg coincided with the
Isosceles triangle.
While this is a very ingenious and short method, not the kind of proof that appeals to young students. Moreover, it is always preferable to let students
other.
is
it
apply the usual fundamental method,

of equal triangles.
i.e.
the method
In the prevailing arrangement of propositions, the only method that leads to two triangles the equality of which can be proved by the student at this stage, is
based upon the bisection of the vertical angle. As the student, however, cannot foresee this result, it would be
advisable to let him try to obtain two equal triangles by means of the median or the altitude, in order that he
may
discover for himself
why
the bisector alone can
be used.
The
tion
which the student has
only point relating to the proof of this proposito remember is the fact that
the bisector of the vertical angle does lead to the two
equal triangles.
152
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
Hypothetical
construction ?
construction.
153
What
is
a hypothetical
In the proof discussed in the preceding use has been made of the bisector of an paragraph, angle, and this is done before the method of constructing such a bisection has been established. duction of a line or other figure, before
This introit
is
shown
how
tions,
it
struction.
can be constructed, is called a hypothetical conEuclid never used hypothetical construcall
while practically
modern books use them,

critics
more or less. There are, however, many
who
attack
the
use of hypothetical constructions. Especially does the use of the bisector in the isosceles triangle seem to invite the criticism of certain writers,
who do
not appear
to realize that there are other cases just as glaring in
nearly
all
textbooks.
Is the use
Logical aspect of hypothetical constructions.
of hypothetical constructions justified from the logical Is it logical to introduce the bisector of point of view ?
an angle, before we possess an exact method of conOr are the numerous critics justified in structing it?
denouncing such a practice as The answer to these critics
in the least
illogical
is
?
that
is
it
does not matter
whether the
line
drawn
the exact bisector
or not.
The
proof of a demonstration does not

its
depend
As soon as we diagram. admit that there is a bisector, we can give an absolutely exact proof, and the validity of such a proof does not at all depend upon our ability to draw this line
upon the accuracy of
exactly.
154
Such a use of quantities that we cannot accurately

determine
is
absolutely general in mathematical science.
form relations between the roots of an equation, not only before we have determined them, but even in cases when it is absolutely impossible to determine them.
We
We
etc.
refer coordinates
to
system, before
If
we know
it,
the center of gravity of a the location of this center,

quantity before
we excluded any
of determining
method
we had a we would have no higher

in a
mathematics.
It is true,
however, that
we assume something
hypothetical construction, and
this is the existence of the
line or other figure, e.g. the existence of the bisector of
an angle. But there

tion that
is
an enormous difference between the asserto
we have
show that a
bisector
is
possible,
the contention that
we have
to find the entire
and method
for constructing such a line. Not even the possibility of the above construction has to be proved, but simply the fact that somewhere there is a bisector. If, for in-
demonstration should require seven points dividing a circumference into seven equal parts, it would be perfectly logical to use the seven points. For, while
impossible to obtain seven such points by an exact construction, it is a very easy matter to show that such
it
stance, a
is
proof does not our ability to get an exact diagram. depend upon Hence the flaw in hypothetical constructions is not of
points do exist, and the logic of the
the kind that most

of
critics claim,
and
flaw
in
nearly
all
cases
elementary
geometry
this
can be
entirely
removed.
In the above theorem, for instance,
it
155
would
is
be a very simple matter to demonstrate that there
always a bisector, although very few teachers would think it worth while to introduce such a demonstration.
Pedagogic aspect of hypothetical constructions.
The
logical objections against hypothetical figures are therefore not of such a kind that we should exclude this
method.
thetical
On
the other hand, the introduction of hypo-
diagrams undoubtedly simplifies elementary ge-
ometry.
The greater simplicity of our modern way of presenting this science as compared to Euclid's is largely due to the use of this method, and hence its use
It is true,
in
elementary teaching must be recommended. however, that students who have never
drawn a perpendicular, nor a parallel, nor a bisector may be somewhat confused by the introduction of such lines,
and may ask how these
lines
can be obtained.
The
discussions of the preceding paragraph would in such
confuse them
a case be of no help to the students, but would rather little time devoted to drawstill more.
ing exercises before demonstrative geometry up will remove all such difficulties.
Applications of the preceding theorem.
is
taken
Among
viz.,
the
many
applications of the isosceles triangle proposition
that are possible, two classes
may be
mentioned,
the
calculation of certain angles

lines
and the finding of equal
and angles.
Since the three angles of an isosceles triangle are connected by two equations, any other independent
equation will determine
all
angles.
Hence, by assign-
X$6
ing a value to any of the twelve angles of the complete diagram, we may determine the others. Similarly
any equation as
etc., will
C=
20, 2
its
A + $B
converse
C=
20,
enable us to find
all
angles.
The
direct proposition
and
may be used
to prove the equality of lines
and angles, and there are

effectively attacked in this
cases which are
much more
manner than by equal

is
is
triangles.
While
logically this
only a special case of equal triangles, practically it a new method. Hence the student had better befamiliar with
come
METHOD VI. The equality of angles is occasionally proved by the isosceles triangle proposition.
SIMPLE CONSTRUCTIONS
Straightedge and compasses.
All constructions in
elementary plane geometry have to be carried out by means of two instruments, viz., the compasses and the
these, only the compasses deserve an instrument, as the straightedge is the simply a model of a straight line that enables us to copy a line which was constructed by some one else.
straightedge.
Of
name
of
any more an instrument than a piece of board that has been given the form of an ellipse or a parabola, and that may be used to draw such curves at the blackIt is not
Since the perfect rectilinear motion has a certain value in mechanics, an instrument accomplishing Watt's parallelogram, this was sought for a long time.
board.
used on his steam engines, produces an approximately
rectilinear motion, but Peaucellier's
first
1 5)
linkage* was the
It
instrument to accomplish this exactly. should be borne in mind that the restriction to
is
rules and compasses
great simplicity of these instruments,

intrinsic qualities of
purely conventional, due to the and not to any

to effect the constructions
geometric figures.
Attempts have been made

of
geometry by means of the compasses alone, or by means of the straightedge alone. By the last method, however, only a limited number of problems f can be
* Peaucellier's linkage consists of
7 rigid links,
connected by the joints

jP,
A, B, C, D) 0, and
P of PO = PA, DO tions. = BO,AB = BC = CD = DA. When the iny
which only two,
and
have fixed posi-
strument
swings about
it
and P, the point A obviously moves in a circle, and

straight line.
can be proved that

:
describes a
The
i.
proof depends upon the following facts

i.e.
OA X OC =~OD2 - DA*,
a constant.
2.
If
OA X OC
unknown
a constant, and
A moves
in a circle, then
moves
in a straight line.
t If the
quantity, expressed algebraically,
is
rational, the
ruler alone will effect a construction.
158
solved. On the other hand, Mascheroni, in 1797, sue* ceeded in showing that all constructions that can be effected by ruler and compasses can also be accom-
Later on, Poncelet plished by the compasses alone. demonstrated that the same problems can also be solved by the use of one fixed circle, and the use of the straight-
edge only.
Pedagogic remarks.
simple constructions
dicular, parallel, etc.
It
i.e.
is
very desirable that the
drawing of bisector, perpenshould occur as early as possible " in the course, for this will do away with further hypothetical constructions/'
and besides, these constructions
are of great simplicity and interest to the beginner. Since several of these constructions depend upon the
third proposition of equal triangles
(s.s.s.
=s.s.s.) t they
It
is,
be placed however, a mistake

have
to
later
than this proposition.
to place
them
at the
end of Book
I,
or even of II, as
some authors have done.

little
The
theory
of these constructions offers

if
difficulty, especially
we give a large number of applications. One feature that deserves special attention
upon
of
is
the
language and drawing. accuracy While the diagram of a theorem has nothing to do with
insistence
the validity of the proposition, the diagram of a problem is the essential part of the work. Moreover, continual free-hand
construction will sometimes lead to
loose thinking.
Students will talk glibly about an arc
drawn from as a center, and will at the same time draw an arc whose prolongation passes through O. Accurate drawing makes such matters impossible, and
hence
in the
159
constructions
beginning at least
is
all
should be effected with ruler and compasses.
Accuracy
of expression
most essential for brief and
concise descriptions of the constructions. It may be obtained by making students know exactly the easily few typical phrases that occur in such work. " From
A
"
as a center with a radius equal to
CD
draw an
arc."
On AB lay off A C= MN." " From A dra.wABMN." "Through O draw AB CD" etc., etc.
II
Insist also
upon designating a new

all,
line, etc.,
it
if it is
is
going to
duced.
to
be designated at
as soon as
intro-
Do
not say
"
:
Through A
by
MN, and
Do
designate
it
AB"
draw a perpendicular " but, Through A draw
AB JL MNr
instance,
not give details of preceding constructions. For if construction makes use of the bisecting any
it is
of an angle A,
sufficient to state
"
bisect angle
A,"
although in the beginning

to
draw
all
require the student details of this construction. Or if a con-
we may
transformation of a rectangle into a square, and this problem has been studied "Transform into a square." before, state only
struction
requires the
ABCD
ABCD
In complex examples
make
a graphic distinction be-
tween given
lines
lines,
lines of construction,
by
using different colors or
and resulting by drawing one kind
of line thin, the other dotted,
and the third heavy.
UNEQUAL LINES AND ANGLES

Proofs of the propositions.
The
first
of the proposi-
tions establishing the inequality of lines
compares the
l6o
of two
is
sum
and
sides
of
a triangle with the third one,

it
hardly requires any comment. that in a triangle the angle the greater side is the greater one is difficult opposite
so simple that
The
second, however,
viz.,
The writer employs paper folding for this which usually leads students to the discovery purpose,
to analyze.
of a proof.
Cut out a piece of paper and mark, on both sides of the paper, the sides whose lengths we assume to be
different.
Mark
also differ-
ently,
on both sides of the
paper, the angles whose relative
size
we wish
:
to
dis-
cover, and ask the follow-
ing questions
Which
is
the only theorem which tells that one angle than another? Ans. The exterior angle of greater
is
a triangle, etc. Who can fold this paper so that B becomes the exterior angle of a triangle, while A becomes a remote interior ?
students cut out pieces of paper and try, and soon some will find the answer that is indicated in the
Let
all
annexed diagram.
tC
B
Students see
now
the truth of the
D
it
proposition, and
remains to translate
this idea into
geometric terminology.
We
unfold the paper, find that
l6l
the
CD
is
the bisector of
C, find the position of
',
and B' DC, etc. equality of The third proposition, which compares two triangles that have two sides respectively equal but the included
angles unequal, has a great
for
A BDC
many
proofs, all of
which
proof,
require the superposition of two equal sides.

instance,
One
which
in
is
not so
very
the
difficult to discover,
triangles
places the position

If
indicated in the diagram.
we wish to prove that AB > AD, we would naturally inquire

into the relative sizes of angles
'
ABD
and
ADB.
But as the
base angles of isosceles triangle CDB are equal, the proof is easily completed. This proof, however, has a drawback which is peculiar to many demonstrations of
rC
this proposition, viz.,
it
has to be modified considerably

A
B
for
different
figures, e.g. for the an-
nexed diagram.
usually given in textbooks has not this disadvantage, although its analysis is rather difficult.
is
The
proof which
It
may, however, also be discovered by paper folding. Cut out a piece
of paper as indi-
cated in diagram
I,
and
let
BC and
lines
DB
be the
1 62
TEACHING OP MATHEMATICS
whose inequality has to be proven. Fold the paper ovei as in diagram II, and require now the students to fold
II
forms one side of the triangle, uhile EC forms the other two sides. This will lead to figure III
it
so that
BD
and the entire proof.

converses of these cases require, according to the law discussed on page 146, no demonstrations.
The
While we would not make use of

bear in mind that in
will effect a proof.
all
this fact,
it is
well to
such cases the indirect method
The analysis Simple application of the propositions. an original requiring the inequality of lines should be of
started
by the question: "What means do we have to " the inequality of lines ? The only means which prove we have so far are the three theorems, to which we shall
and
(3) respectively.
refer in the following as (i), (2),
(i) has to be used when no relation of angles is Number (2) may be used if the given or can be found. lines which we wish to compare are sides of one triangle
Number
and some
facts relating to angles can be found.

if
Num-
ber (3) has to be used
the two lines whose inequality
163
we have
to prove
lie
in different
triangles
and some
but this
is
facts relating to angles
may
be found.
Of course
geometry.
thinking,
this is not absolutely definite,
one of the peculiarities
or shall we say charms? of The work cannot be done without some

originality,
on the part of the student. Before actually demonstrating such originals, it is

let
some
advisable to
students decide in a large

is
number
of
cases which of the above methods
most
likely to lead
to a result, although it must be borne in mind that sometimes two or even three methods may be used effectively. The given data may be indicated graphically, e.g. one
color always representing the larger, another color the
cises
smaller side or angle, as the case may be. few exerto such a choosing of the proper means adapted
:
are the following Ex.

I.
liAB
and
CD
are
two intersecting
lines,
AB -f
CZ><
AD +
Ex.
that
CB.
2.
DO DA.
In triangle
ABC MAS = BC
and
lies in
AB, prove
Ex. 3. If two sides of a parallelogram are unequal, the angles formed by the diagonals are unequal.
"Ex. 4. A point without the perpendicular bisector of a line unequally distant from the ends of the line.
is
The applications of the converses are analogous to those of the direct propositions and hence hardly require
a discussion.
Difficult
originals
relating to
unequal
lines.
The
methods
of the present
paragraph may be helpful to
the teacher, while in general they are not adapted for
1 64
These methods d&
classroom work in a high school.

rive a particular value
from the
fact that similar ones
In hard are frequently used for attacking problems.* examples the difficulty is usually due to the circumstance that the lines to be compared do not lie together, In such i.e. do not form one triangle or two triangles.
cases
it is
necessary to
or
move some
together.
parts so as to bring
certain lines
angles
In geometry such
moving figures are frequently used, and the most important ones are
modes
1.
of
Translation.
figure
is
tion
if all its
subjected to a translapoints describe equal
and
parallel lines.
Thus AB may
be translated into the position A'ff. Of course A'ff would

also be equal and parallel to AB. about an axis. If A is turned Turning over about the axis xy, it will take
2.
ABC
the position A'flC. is symmetric to A'B'C with respect to the axis xy.
ABC
A special case
of the preceding
method is the turning over a
A'
figure so
A(B')
B(A')
that one of
its lines, e.g.
AB
A
coincides with
BA.
If
we apply
AB
to
BA
so that
occupies the position formerly held by

* See Chapter
XV.
B, and
165
AAJ3C
The
the position formerly held will assume the position
FC
by A, then the
.
Similarly,
we may apply an
is
angle
ABC
to
CUA.
C
resulting triangle
B
is
Rotation about a point. In the diagram A rotated about A as center through an angle of 60.
3.
ABC
The
use of these methods
is
explained by lines of four propositions

i.
the following out:
If
in
trapezoid
A BCD,
-
DA >
CB, then
Z B > /.A.
CE
.-*
- -ED
=
Translate ZX4 into the position
CE > CB,
.-.
ZB
_
*''
_
> Z CEB,
U
(i.e.
draw CE\\DA), then
2.
InAAJSC,
BO AC,
CDB'.
and
.B
CD bisects Z C. To prove DB > AD.

Turn
A CDB
that
over about CD,
thus taking the position
To
have to compare
Obviously the
greater one.
prove
DB'
> AD,
we
4 B'
latter,
and B'AD, or (since B~B')AB and B'AD. being an exterior angle of A ABC, is the
the proof follows easily.
Hence
i66
If in quadrilateral
ABCD, AB
prove that
> CD, and BC > DA, Z D > Z B.

together,
Since no two of the unequal sides lie we turn over so that
&ABC
AC
'Vg/
(not drawn in diagram) coincides with CA, and the triangle takes the
position A'B'C. Drawing now B'D, we obtain two triangles AB'Dznd. DB'C,
each containing two unequal sides. Adding the unequal angles B. Z. B' or Z obtained herefrom, we get Z
D>
D>
3.
If a point
lateral
7,
D be taken in equitriangle such that Z ADB > then DC > DB.

&ADB
about
1
Rotate
the
position
AD'C.
,
A We
until
it
takes
to
_
have
now
compare CD and CD which suggests the drawing of D'D and the comparison of As &ADD* the angles CD'D and CDD
1
is
isosceles, the con-
clusion
is
easily
obtained.
EXERCISES
Ex.
i.
If
AB CD
II
and
DB >
CA, then
ZA
is
> Z B.
2.
Ex.
If in triangle
drawn,
and
> Z -#C>.
1
ABC the median CD BC > CAE, then /.ACD (Rotate A Z^C about /? through
ABCD, AB
80, or translate CA.) Ex. 3. If in quadrilateral = ^C, then Z > DC, and
AD
C> A
and
Ex.
4.
If in quadrilateral
ABCD, AB > CD and Z B = Z /?,
Ex.
"
5.
If a point
within parallelogram
>
four vertices, and
EA > ^C,
> EB, then Z C# > DEA.

Z.
ABCD be joined to the
Ex.
Ex. and
6.
I6 7
In the same diagram,
if
EA > EC
and
ED = EB,
then
CEB >
7.
DEA.
C,
If point E within a square ABCD be joined to A, B, and AE > C*, then Z BEC >
ABC
DO FA,
Ex.
8.
If in the
then
> Z 2.
annexed diagram AB = BC, FE (Compare Ex. 4, p. 240.)
= ED,
and
POLYGONS
Positive and negative quantities in geometry. In recent years certain writers on mathematical pedagogy have declared with great emphasis that it was of the
lettered counter-clockwise.
is
utmost importance that polygons and angles should be The reason for such a usage
.due to
modern geometry.
of
Modern geometry
coni.e.
siders the algebraic values of geometric quantities,

it
makes use
negative
lines,
negative angles, and
negative areas, and by this method greatly simplifies many statements. While elementary Euclidean geometry frequently has to modify its statements for different figures, or in other words has to distinguish between " several cases/' modern geometry covers all such cases
by one statement
To
illustrate
by a concrete example,
i68
let
and
us join any point O to the vertices of a triangle ABC, and the let us discover the relation between A
ABC
triangles OAB, OBC, and OCA. Elementary geometry has to discriminate between seven different cases, three
of which are illustrated
by the following diagrams.
Ill
In these diagrams we have respectively

II.
III.
&ABC=&OAB-&OBC + A OCA. &ABC=&OAB-&OBC-&OCA.

A OBC in
In modern geometry, however, a clockwise sequence of the letters denoting a triangle represents a negative
diagrams II and III is a negaand similarly A OCA in diagram III. tive quantity, Hence we have for all possible figures
area,* hence
A ABC= A OAB + A OBC + A OCA.

Similarly, by considering angles read counter-clockwise as positives those read clockwise as negative, we
* The reason for selecting the counter-clockwise sequence as positive
is
due to the fact that the determinant,
y*
which gives the area

*t, yz y is
positive
if
whose vertices are x\, y\ xt,yz'> and the vertices 1,2, and 3 follow in counter-clockwise
of a triangle
;
order.
169
diagrams state quite generally,, no matter what the positions of A, B, and Care
:
may
in the following
Z AOB + Z BOC = Z.AOC.
c o
Using directed
line:
or,
lines,
we can
with reference to three points A, B,
AB + BC=AC\ AB + BC + CA = o.
These statements do not

depend upon the positions of A, B, and C.*
--_ -_ -assert quite
generally
C lying
B
j
in a straight
A
'
C
'
C
A
B
'
C
'
The
great usefulness of such conventions to advanced
geometry cannot be denied, but this does not decide the question, whether or not we should insist upon these
matters in a secondary school. Not one high school student in a thousand will ever study modern geometry,
and the few who do

utes.
will
grasp these ideas in a few min-
Hence
the usefulness of these conventions does
not form a sufficient reason for introducing them in our

schools.
are so exceedingly simple," we are told, "that students will learn them without any extra effort whatsoever." In some cases this is true,
"But these matters
but in others
it
would mean an
additional,
and quite
the case
unnecessary, burden put upon the pupil.

*
If
if
Take
we admit imaginary
quantities,
then
AB + BC
-f-
CA
o,
even
does not
lie
on
A B.
I7O
of a
somewhat complex diagram, e.g. a triangle with its altitudes and the lines joining the feet of the altitudes, and force the student, who is reciting a difficult demonevery angle mentioned counter-clockwise, and there is no doubt that you add thereby a very decided difficulty. This difficulty is utterly uncalled for,
stration, to read
as
has nothing whatever to do with the demonstration, and it distracts the student's mind from the true issue.
it
Hence
it
seems absurd
to insist
upon a
rigid applica-
True, in very simple examples, as in lettering a triangle or a quadrilateral, no harm would be done by counter-clockwise notation,
tion of these
modern conventions.
and
it
may even be recommended

the whole situation
:
in
such cases, but
solely for the sake of uniformity.
To sum up
Nothing can be said
against the use of counter-clockwise notation in very simple examples, but the importance of the entire matter
has been greatly overrated by some of our pedagogues. The sum of the angles of Remarks on two theorems. a polygon, wheii expressed in right angles, is sometimes
stated in an
in
ambiguous way, that may leave the reader 2 or 2 (n doubt, whether this sum is 2 n 2) right
angles.
The use
of straight angles, or of the algebraic
symbols 2(^
2) will obviate this difficulty.
In giving
the usual demonstration of this proposition, some students are inclined to add triangles instead of angles of
these triangles. may test the real understanding of the students by joining a point within the polygon to all the vertices, and finding out whether they will add the
triangles in this case, also.
We
171
of the exterior
The
truth of the proposition of the
sum
angles can be shown in a concrete

pencil in the position
it
way by
placing a
BX and
i,
rotating
it
by the amount
of
moving
It
is
then
to next vertex,
adding a rotation equal

forth.
to
2,
and so
obvious
returning to its original position has rotated through an angle of 360, i.e. the sum of the exterior angles equal to 4 rt. A.
that the pencil
when
is
This method can also be applied to exterior angles of

star-shaped polygons, resulting
in
the
first
figure in
x 360,
in the second, in 3
matter to obtain the
sum
then an easy of the interior angles of such

It is
x 360.
star-shaped polygons. Exercises referring to polygons. Oral exercises are well adapted for familiarizing students with the simpler
Find the sum of applications of these propositions various polygons in right angles, straight angles, and degrees find the number of sides of polygons, the sums
:
of
whose angles are given

;
in right angles, straight angles,
or degrees
find each angle of equiangular polygons, etc.
172
For more difficult examples, it may be well to point out that the exterior angle proposition frequently can be employed to greater advantage than the sum of the
interior angles.
To
find, for instance,
the
number
is
of
sides of a polygon each of

it
whose
interior angles
170,
is
not advisable to give the algebraic solution based
upon the equation * 4
^- = -Z_
but to consider that
each exterior angle is of such angles, and the number of
n 180 10, and that hence the number

sides, is 36.
CHAPTER XI
Typical methods of proving geometric
facts.
The
fun-
damental idea of the analysis of geometric theorems was explained in Chapter III. There it was shown that
every analysis starts by examining the various means by which the proposition may be proved. knowledge
of the most generally used
"means"
of proving certain
therefore of the utmost importance. Every proposition, axiom, or definition may be used as such a means, but far more important are the general
geometric facts
is
"
typical
methods," such as the methods for proving

is
;
the equality of lines, the parallelism of lines, etc. " " methods thorough acquaintance with these
indispensable for successful work in attacking problems and it should be one of the chief aims of geometric instruction to familiarize the students with them.
To
the six methods previously given two

*
:
more may
be added
METHOD
as another
its
VII.
To prove that a
we usually
line is twice as large double the smaller, and prove that
double equals the greater, or sometimes we bisect the The greater, and prove that its half equals the smaller.
same
relation between angles is proved in a similar
way.
* These For eight methods refer to the first book of geometry. methods relating to the other books of geometry, see Schultze and
Sevenoak's Geometry.
173
174
VIII.
METHOD
To prove that the sum

c,
c,
of
two
of
lines
a and b equals a third line b and prove that it equals
construct the
sum
a and
or construct the difference

it
between c and a and prove that
equals
b.
question that should always open the attack of a problem should be What means have we of establish:
The
ing
this
conclusion?
methods,
we have
to
general look for propositions, or even
In
the
absence
of
axioms and
definitions.
Every proposition
the proposition,
"
in the textbook
and every original
i.e. Thus in teaching analyzed. the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal, the figure is a parallelogram," we should ask, What is the usual method of demonstrating
should be so attacked,
If
the parallelism of lines

tion is in this
And
after the original questo the equality of
manner reduced
etc.
two
angles,
we
should ask for the method of demonstrating
the equality of angles,

Analysis. the student
As
at
this
explained in the preceding paragraph, stage of the work should be
thoroughly familiar with the practical use of simple analysis, even though the teacher may not have found
it
necessary to refer explicitly to the term analysis or Before Book I is to discuss its peculiarities in detail.
completed, however, this should be done. All that was previously mentioned about this method should be summarized, and
its
application to
more
difficult
theorems
should be studied.
In making a complete analysis
far as possible every
means
that
we should study as we have at our dis-

posal.
175
reduce the original theorem to a number of others, any one of which may lead to a solution. The same method is to be applied to each of the new
This
will
can easily be seen that in some cases a great number of proofs may result. In general some of these proofs are simpler than others, and the
questions,
and
it
skill
of the
student will appear in a wise selection
of the means.
At
and
out
duced
the original question is restudent should survey the diagram determine all known facts. Thus, he should find
to another, the
the start,
and whenever
what angles or lines are equal, what numerical values of angles are known, etc., and he should represent these
Not every theorem can be analyzed in an absolutely stereotyped manner; the more difficult require a certain amount of ingenuity. But a study of such analytic methods will greatly enlarge the power of the weak as
facts graphically in the diagram.
well as of the strong student.
A few illustrations
i
.
Theorem.
may be useful.* The median CD to

is
the
AB
*u
of a right triangle
one half the
hypotenuse.
Analysis. According to one of the above methods, either (a) double CD, or (b) bisect BA.
(a) Produce
BE
c
F
hypotenuse
prove that
CD by CE = AB.
its
own
length to
and
= DB, Survey the diagram: which shows AEBC is a parallelogram

* For further simple illustrations
AD
CD = DE, Z. C= 90,
Schultze
see
and Sevenoak's
Geometry.
i 76
since
and
AEBC is a rectangle. The equality of CE AB follows from equal triangles, or from the
proposition relating to the diagonals of a rectangle. is the midpoint of AB, we have (b) Since
to
prove that
CD
DA.
The means
for proving
the equality of lines is usually a pair of equal triangles, and if there are no triangles, construct a
pair; hence
draw DF\\ BC, and

is
find equal parts.
2.
Theorem*
If
scribed in a circle
and
ABC P
is
an equilateral triangle ina point in arc BC, then
PA = PB + PC.
Analysis.
We
have two means of
showing
I.
this conclusion, viz., either
II.
Draw the sum of PB and PC, or Draw the difference of PA and PC. I. We may draw the sum of PB
and
PC by
either
(a ) prolonging
BP, or
(b) prolonging PB. to E, so that (a) Produce PC, and prove the equality of
BP
PE and
BE
:
PA.
ing angles are
Survey the diagram. The followknown to be 60 A, ACB,
PC = PE
60.
and hence Z
ABC, APB, APC, CPE. E = /. ECP =
Therefore
CE =
CP.
The
upon a
equality of lines depends usually
The pair of equal triangles. and CBE, and their triangles are
CAP
equality
easily established. to D, (b) Produce

is
PB
so
that
BD =
CP, and prove PA = PD. Here we cannot find equal triangles,
will lead to a solution,

is
but a careful survey of the diagram which, however,
more
difficult
than
I,
(a)
* This analysis requires a knowledge of Book
II.

Survey the diagram and mark all angles of 60 by one arc. As has to be equilateral if the theorem is true. = AP, the theorem would be Hence, if we could prove
APD = 6o, &APD

The
equality of
AD
established.
AD
and
AP
follows
from the equality of the triangles ACP and ABD. II. The difference between PA and
PC may
either
be constructed by laying off

(a) on
(b)
PC
PA,
or
on AP.
lay off
(a)
On PA
:
PF= />Cand
at-
= PB tempt to prove the diagram: Survey

Since
/. A = Z. ABC = Z BCA = Z. APC = /. BPA = 60. PC = PF, PCF = Z PFC = 60, hence CF = CP.
AF
The means
are the triangles
for
proving
AF = PB
and
AFC
lay
and BPC, whose
equality
(b)
is
easily established.
On
AP
off
AH= CP
HP
prove
HP = PB.
Since
we have no
and equal triangles, containing as homologous parts, we try to show is equilateral, or that that
PB
PHB
HB
PB, a
fact that follows
triangles
ABH and
from the equal
CBP.
denies
if
The
indirect method.
is
A
its
proposition which
another one
called
contradictory.
Thus,
we
consider the proposition,

If
its
A
is
is
B, then a
is &,
contradictory would
If
be,
B, then a is not b. Instead of proving that a theorem is true, we may show Such a method of that its contradictory is absurd.
178
demonstration
is
called
"
reductio ad
absurdum
"
or the
this
indirect method.
More concretely we may explain

:
method
If,
as follows
in general,
must be either
B or
C, or
D, and we
wish to prove that under the particular conditions of the hypothesis A must be B, we may show this either
directly, or
Cand A
is
D lead to contradictions.
by demonstrating that the conclusions A is These may be con-
tradictions of the hypothesis, or of a previously proven
theorem, or of an axiom. In regard to the application of the indirect method
no general rules can be given. It may be tried by the It is frequently students whenever other methods fail.
applied for the proofs of converses, and can always be applied in case of the law of converses that was dis-
cussed in Chapter X. Most theorems Attacking a theorem as a problem. may be attacked as problems.* Thus, instead of proving the proposition of the square of a side opposite an acute angle, we may require to find the side of
a triangle opposite an acute angle whose other two sides are respectively equal to b and c> if the proper
projection
is
/.
In the study of Book
I,
this
may
be applied to theorems that establish relations between

angles.
A concrete illustration
If
may
explain this
method
CE bisects Z
C,
and
CD -L AB,
then
XV) may
Consequently some of the methods for attacking problems (Chapter be used.

In a beginner's class,
let
179
A = w, ^ =
Hence,
n.
ZAC
But
(180
m-n).
example which leads to simultaneous equations follows from the theorem If O is the point of intersec:
An
tion of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of
A ABC,
then
/.
OBC is
the complement of angle A.

*
= *, OBA=y, and
then we have
jr
^ 0C4 =
5r,
2*+2/-f2Z=
+j^
*
1 80. B.
x+
C
obtain
C.
Solving these equations,
we
the
x=
90
A, or
is
complement of angle A.
CHAPTER
XII
THE CIRCLE*
REGULAR PROPOSITIONS
Circle or circumference.
when giving the definitions " a sharp distinction between the terms " circumference and "circle," denoting by the first the line, by the second the area. While such a distinction is very desirable from the logical point of view, it is not adhered to outIn daily life as well as side of elementary geometry. in advanced mathematics, the line is generally denoted
" by the term circle/' and even the usual elementary textbook soon drops the distinction, and speaks of a circle
Most elementary textbooks, relating to circle, insist upon
that passes through three points, or of the intersection
of two circles, etc.
While no great harm

if it is
is
done by
it
this differentiation
carried out consistently,
is
on the other hand
distinctly against usage.
Since linguistic matters are
decided by usage and not by logic, it would possibly be best to denote the line by circle, and to reserve the
term "circumference
If,
"
for the length of this line.
then
it
however, the elementary distinction is accepted, would be logical to define a circumference

circle
* Further discussion of topics relating to the Chapters XIII and XVI. 1 80
may
be found
in
THE CIRCLE
first,
l8l
and a
circle as
an area bounded by a circum-
ference.
First propositions.
cle, viz., all
propositions on the circircles are equal, the diameter bisects the

first
The
circumference,
etc., offer,
on account of their simplicity,
those of the preliminary The propositions which were discussed in Chapter V. remarks that were made there may be repeated here,
peculiar difficulties similar to
mention two points Do not dwell too long upon these theorems, and reduce their number to the most essential ones.
but
it
may
suffice to
A
"A
first
proposition, for instance, that

its
count of the obviousness of

sibility of
confusing on acconclusion and the imposis

:
drawing a correct diagram is the following straight line cannot intersect a circumference in
points."
more than two
Many
books make
this the
proposition, and give a complicated indirect proof, whereas it is far more advantageous to defer it, and to
a corollary of the theorem, " circle can be drawn through any three points not in a straight line." From this proposition it follows easily that a circle can-
make
it
and hence that a straight more than two points.
not be drawn through three points in a straight line, line cannot meet a circle in
Several of the fundamental propositions relating to the circle have to be based upon superposition, and the
necessity of using this remember that for each
tion is the only
method becomes
clear,
if
we
new type
for
of figure superposi-
means
shown
in
Chapter VIII.
proving equality, as was The student will have no
l82
such proofs if he bears in mind that Thus to the parts given as equal must be superposed.
difficulty in finding
prove that equal central angles intercept equal arcs, we have to superpose the central angles, etc. If the student has masAnalysis of some theorems.
tered the fundamental ideas of analysis as applied in
Book I, and if the teacher emphasizes the new typical methods of demonstrating the equality of arcs, chords,
nearly all demonstrations relating to the circle will few examples, howbe discovered without difficulty.
etc.,*
In most cases the students ever, may be given here. should be able to give not only the answers, but also
to
propose the questions, and the sequence of the

i.
questions.
In equal circles the greater chord subtends the
greater (minor) arc.

Query.
What
?
is
the only
means
that
we know
to prove the in-
equality of arcs
Answer.
Unequal
central angles.
Query.
What
therefore must
we prove
Answer.
Query.
ZO>Ô'.
What methods do we know
?
for
demonstrating the
in-
equality of angles
* See next section.
THE CIRCLE
Answer.
to
183
The exterior angle
proposition, the proposition relating
one triangle having two sides unequal, and the proposition relating to two triangles. Which method alone can we use here, and why ? Query. Answer. The last method, because the angles lie in different triangles.
Query.
Hence what must we show about
triangles
OAB
and
O'AW
It is easily
seen that the triangles satisfy the conditions.
2.
To prove
that
an inscribed angle
it is
is
measured by one
half the intercepted arc,
better not to propose the
general proposition at one side of the angle

find this without help;
Query.
arc
first,
is
if
a diameter.
not,
but merely the case in which Usually students
we may ask
as follows:
Which
angle
is
measured by
AB
Answer.
Query.
Z A OB. What relation between angles

?
Cand A OB must we therefore prove Z C = \ Z A OB. Answer.

The proof is
3.
then easily established.
discover the propositions relating to the measurement of angles by certain

it
If students find
difficult to
arcs,
propose
e.g.
at
first
numerical
questions;
If arc
AD = 40
/.
and arc
After
CB =
a
50, find few such
AED.
discover
examples,
students as a rule will
the general propositions. annexed diagram, which relates to a tangent, 4. In the students find it sometimes peculiar that we prove that
i84
lies
without the
circle.
"We
why
can see that

should
it
D
?
is
without,
be proved
"
it
"
Of
"
course, quite in general,

is
see-
ing
easily
not proving, but

in this
fail
can be
the
shown
example that
circum-
"seeing"
question
stances.
will
to decide
under
certain
Let the radius be very great, say, several miles, and very small, say, one inch. Then
AD
nobody could decide by seeing whether or not is without, while
the demonstration shows
it
beyond
a doubt*
Generalizations of certain theorems.
relating to the
The theorems measurement of angles by arcs can be

Let
let it
generalized as follows.
A
be
be such an angle, and
generated by a counter-clockwise rotation of AB, from the initial

position
tion
AB to the terminal posithen the point of

of
line
in-
AD\
tersection
circle
moving would sweep over arc BD counter-clockwise, and over arc
and
EC
all
clockwise.
If
we
if
consider
arcs as positive
the mov-
ing point travels over
them counter-clockwise, and
as
arc, will
* The theorem, The central angle is measured by the intercepted be analyzed in the chapter on limits (XIII).
THE CIRCLE
negative
wise,*
if
'8s
the moving point travels over them clockall
we may summarize
theorems relating
to angles
as
follows:
An
angle
is
measured by one half the
algebraic sum of the intercepted arcs. Thus the notion of positive and negative geometric quantities, that is so widely used in modern geometry,
enables us to merge into one proposition a number of different theorems which are illustrated in the annexed
diagrams.
proposition indicated by the fifth diagram is generally not given in textbooks the last diagram indi;
The
cates
that
if
the
angle
is
zero,
i.e.
if
the lines are

zero.
parallel, the algebraic sum of the arcs If we widen our defini-
is
tion
by admitting imaginary
if
arcs, the proposition is true
even
one or both sides of
the angle do not meet the circumference at all. Thus if the vertex of an angle moves over the entire plane and its sides rotate in any manner, the proposition
* For a somewhat simpler, but
tive
less logical, distinction
and negative
arcs, see Schultze
between and Sevenoak's Geometry.
posi-
1 86
true.
It
always remains
at
does not
is
change
all
is
any
particular point, but
continuous
abruptly over the
plane.
The
principle
implied here
often referred
to as the principle of continuity.
EXERCISES
The
until
general methods of
Book
II should
be practiced
they become
quite familiar to the students.

:
Some
of the most important are 1. The equality of arcs
is
usually demonstrated by
means
of
(a) equal central angles,
(b) equal chords.
2.
The
of
equality of chords
is
usually demonstrated by
means
(a) equal arcs, (^) equal distances from the center.

3.
The
inequality of arcs
and chords
is
proved in
an analogous way.
The
teacher should take up each of such methods

it by many theorems, and This matter, however, is too
separately and illustrate
sometimes by problems.
simple to require further detail. The theorems on the measurement of angles by arcs should be illustrated by many numerical exercises.
this sort are easily constructed by certain figures, as, for instance, an inscribed considering
Simple exercises of
a
quadrilateral,
circumscribed
triangle,
an inscribed
pentagon, and assigning numerical values to certain
THE CIRCLE
i8 7
angles and arcs, and requiring the numerical values of other angles or arcs.
For certain
difficult exercises of
Book
II
it
is
some-
times necessary to prove that four points are concyclic, i.e. that a circumference can be drawn through them.
Two
theorems
may be
used for this purpose.
The
vertices of quadrilateral
(a)
(b)
A BCD are concyclic if Z ADB = Z ACB or Z A is the supplement of Z C.

y
Each theorem may be proved by the indirect method.
Some
easily cyclic
originals
that
may be
of conother-
proved by means
points,
which
are
wise exceedingly
following
1.
:
difficult,
are the
If
in
quadrilatral
ABCD
if
(see
above diagram)
ADB = Z ACB,
2.
then
Z DCA = Z DBA.
ZB+ ZD=
3.
180, then
Z BAC = Z AD
joining the
Each angle formed by
feet of the three altitudes of a triangle

is
bisected
4.
If
by the corresponding altitude. from any point in the circumof
perpendiculars be dropped upon the sides of an inscribed triangle (produced if necessary), the feet of the perpendiculars are in ference
a
circle
a straight
line.
CHAPTER
LIMITS
XIII
DOGMATIC TREATMENT OF LIMITS
No part of elementary geometry has aroused such an extensive and heated controversy as the theory of
favorite topic of those who lay all of geometric teaching to lack of rigor, the poor results
limits.
It is
the
and who until recently controlled the situation to such an extent that hardly anybody dared to express an
opposite opinion.
The theorems
belong to
1.
that are involved in this controversy

:
two groups Those containing the so-called incommensurable
case.
2.
The determination
circle.
of the circumference
and the
area of a
(In solid
geometry the surface and
volume
and sphere.) involves the idea of incommensurable group number, which was put on a scientific basis only in the
of cone, cylinder,
The
first
The other involves the measurenineteenth century. ment of a curved line, a problem for which our usual
method
measuring (i.e. laying off the unit of length) utterly fails, and which leads to other, almost metaof
physical, difficulties.
There
that
is
exists
no rigorous treatment of these matters
suitable for secondary schools,

188
and the
belief
LIMITS
that the treatment given
in
189
"
"
books
of
is
really rigorous
is
rigorous a delusion.
school textinfluence
The
the dogmatists, however, and their argument that only ignorance prevented teachers from using rigorous methods, were powerful enough to make teachers and
authors vie with each other in

of limits
making the treatment
more and more complex. Often highly artificial definitions were given, which conveyed no meaning to the students, to be followed by
eight or ten abstract theorems relating to the product, the quotient, etc., of variables, and finally a complex,
non-conclusive proof for the equality of the limits of
equal variables. In this rigorous fashion the subject was treated throughout the entire course. True enough, certain students could repeat the words, but not one in a hun-
dred had a clear notion of what he was really doing.
The
have
absolute inefficiency of this

is
way
of teaching this
subject
attested
by nearly
all
college teachers
limits
who
occasion to
make use
of
in
advanced
courses.
Fortunately the pendulum is commencing to swing the other way, and the conviction is gaining ground
more and more

in the
that
it is it
a mistake to treat this subject
way
in
which
has been treated.
RATIONAL TREATMENT OF LIMITS

The incommensurable
schools,
it
case.
There can be no doubt

prevail
all
that under the conditions
that
to
to-day in
our
to
would be better
omit
proofs relating
" attempt to give the customary rigorous* demonstrations.
limits,
than
to
It is possible,
understanding of
difficulties
however, to give to the student a the nature of the problem and
fair
its
by treating the subject very concretely. To by a definite example, let us consider the first proposition, which under the customary arrangement reillustrate
quires limits, viz.
"A
central angle
is
measured by the
is
intercepted arc."
corollary of the
Usually this proposition
given as a
theorem establishing the proportionality of central angles and intercepted arcs. But as the main theorem is never applied, we may omit it, and
at
once attack the corollary in the following manner: Since equal central angles intercept equal arcs, each
i
central angle of
intercepts
of the circumference.
to
Hence, we make a circumference equal

obtain
:
360 and we
An
.'.
.'.
angle of i an angle of
intercepts an arc of i.
(^)
intercepts an arc of
(^).
(f -J).
an angle of (|^) intercepts an arc of

generally,
Or more
An
..
angle of
(\
(
(~ ].
(
an angle
all
of
\m)
\mj
Therefore
common
by
fractions
central angles that can be expressed as are measured proper or improper
their intercepted arcs.
question whether this demonstration was quite general, i.e. if any central was measured by the inter-
The
LIMITS
191
cepted arc, would very likely be answered by the This would lead naturally student in the affirmative.
to
the
subject
of
incommensurable
number.
e.g.
The
student easily sees that certain numbers,
V2, cannot
is
be fractions, for
its
if
A/2 were equal to
(where
is
in
lowest terms), then 2
=^-1^, which
n
n
factor.
impossible
since
It
and n have no common
could be pointed out then
that there
are
other
numbers that cannot equal common fractions, as V7, ?/5, 3. 141 59"- or TT, and the term "incommensurable
number" could be
If
introduced.
the question whether our geometric theorem of
the central angle was proved for all cases, were now repeated, we would quite likely receive a negative reply.
We may
then either
tell
the students that the theorem

also,
;
can be proved for incommensurable numbers

that this proof
is
but
too difficult for school
work
or,
we
may
attempt to
make
the incommensurable case
more
plausible by numbers, for instance, the following approximations of
considering approximations of one of these
A/2
=
is
1.4, 1.41, 1.414,
rem
bers
Obviously the theohence the two numapproximations, the numerical measure of the angle, and the
1.4142, etc.
true for
all
numerical measure of the arc

tively
by
.1, .01,
.001,
.0001, etc.
cannot differ respecOr the error cannot
be as large as any number, however small, which we
may
assign.
We
have thus proved that there can be
w finite
difc
IQ2
ference between the numerical measurements of angle and arc, and this is really all that the so-called rigorous
proofs with their complete machinery accomplish. It we have a craving for rigor, and consider the above
method
less exact
than the customary way,
we
could
make
by incommensurable numbers
bers are equal
rable cases.
if
fully as rigorous as any one of the usual books, introducing the following definition of equality of
it
:
Two incommensurable num-
all
their approximations are equal.
This would practically do away with the incommensu-
The
essential character of the
above method
is
the
it approaches the idea of incommensurable from the purely arithmetic side, and that it dispenses with limit, commensurable and incommensurable lines,
fact that
This is not as truly geometric as the customary mode, but since we placed the entire theory of ratio and proportion upon an arithmetical basis,* there can be no
etc.
sound reason against doing the same for these special
and
difficult casesjof ratio.

is
The purely geometric
idea of
incommensurable
so difficult to the student because
he never before treated these matters geometrically. He has not found geometrically the common measure of
two
lines,
lines
he has no geometric evidence that there are that have no common measure, etc.
illustrate the
To
let
use of this arithmetical plan further
us consider the theorem,
A line
parallel to
one side
of a triangle divides the other two proportionally.
Suppose
in the
annexed diagram that

* See Chapter XIV, Ratio.
AD = \AB>
i.e.
LIMITS
if
193
AB is
two of these
divided into five equal parts, then equals If through the points of division parts.
AD
the parallels to
BC
are drawn,
is
then obviously
AE
f of AC.
then
AC 4|-|. S
is
C
if
Therefore the theorem

pressed in the form
proved
AD
can be ex-
AB
when
~
m
is
common fraction.
numbers
And
again
we
point out that only rational
can appear
in the
form
and treat the incommensu-
rable case as before.
the commensurable case thus treated is more complex than in the customary way, but it slightly does away with the bugbear " common measure.'* For the incommensurable case, however, this method is undoubtedly preferable, since it does away with commensurable and incommensurable lines, variables, limits, etc.* While the theorems considered Length of a curve.
in the
Of course
preceding section can very well be taught withconditions compel the teacher to use the customary
If external
of proving the incommensurable case, he may first teach one or two " geopropositions in the arithmetical manner and then lead over to the
mode
metric-rigorous" way.
He may
whose
introduce commensurable and incom-
mensurable
lines as lines
ratios are
commensurable or incommen-
surable numbers, derive therefrom the fact that for two commensurable lines there always exists a third line, which is contained in each without
remainder, etc.
194
"
" and similar terms, the limit out any reference to length of curves cannot dispense with the notion of
limit.
Here, however,
gogic difficulty in a
the solution of the pedasecondary school in the abandoning

lies
of the demonstration.
Thus, it would be better that the proposition, circumference is the limit of an inscribed polygon,
The
etc.,
were not proved

it
at
all,
for to the
mind not used
to
mathe-
matical subtleties this appears to be axiomatic.
Indeed,
requires a good deal of training to recognize that

difficult
we
have to deal here with a

a proof.
proposition which needs
Not one student
in a
hundred
will acquire a
clearer understanding of this
theorem by studying the

is
is
proof, or rather the series of proofs that The fact that a circle for this proposition.
required the limit

it
of a polygon,
etc.,
appears to be so plain that
forms
one of the best

the time
It is
illustrations of the notion of limit, at
when
this definition is first studied.
an old experience that many problems appear as problems only after considerable advance in their study
has been made.
are
To
"heavy";
this is a
the unsophisticated savage objects fundamental fact not requiring
explanation, and only after considerable progress has been made do we recognize that we have to deal here
with the problem of gravitation that requires solution. To the layman there is no difficulty in explaining why
some
is red,
particular house appears to be red.
The house
reflection
he
will tell us,
and only considerable
will
show him
In
that he has to deal with the mystery of

all
sensation.
such cases,
we must
first
teach the
LIMITS
195
this
student that there
is
a problem, and only after
has
been accomplished may we try to give a solution of the

problem.
It is precisely the
same thing with the length

in
imagining the length of a curve thinks of the length of a curved string that can be straightened. There is nothing difficult to
of curved lines.
The young student
him about
this
problem, and only considerable study will

is
show
to
him
that there
a problem,
and a
difficult one.
In solid geometry, it that surfaces are limits
is
the usual practice to assume although here too some dog-
Why
matists have tried to display their learning by objecting. not use it for plane geometry, also? It is, how-
ever, advisable in all such cases to explain to the stu-
dents that this plan involves a distinct assumption. If teachers are compelled to General suggestions. teach limits and
all
general matters connected with this
notion, the following suggestions

1.
may be
helpful
Give the definition of
limit in
an algebraic form,
making the variable equal to x, the constant equal to some other letter. 2. Be satisfied with an approximate definition. The
student
is
not familiar with
the
idea of a function
and two interdependent variables. It is difficult enough Do not reject a for him to imagine one variable.
definition because
it
does not cover
all
the cases which
the student will meet in his college work. teachers may be inconvenienced by this, but
College
it is
far
more important
than those
for
them
to get students
who
who know
exact definitions.
think well, It is a very
common
experience in mathematics, that certain defini-
196
tions
must be given
at first in a preliminary form.
is
Give
i.e.
the definition which
best for your
own
purpose,
the teaching of elementary geometry, and let college teachers revise these later on. If, for instance, a
" teacher should feel that the clause,
variable can-
not reach
accept
it.
its
limit/'
is
helpful to his work,
he should
to
All limits considered in elementary geometry
have
this peculiarity,
it
and
it
may be advantageous
out in the beginning. point Certainly the fact that there are other limits, outside of school geometry, that
have not
decision.
3.
this peculiarity, should
have no weight
in the
Illustrate the nature of a limit
by a large number
of
concrete cases.
Recurring decimals, as .ggg--;
infinite series, as I
etc., offer
algebraic functions, as
]n=a<>
">
good examples.
Also motion examples, the fact that circumference and area of a circle are respectively limits of perimeter
and area of
4.
certain polygons
may be
used.
Do
not attempt to
teach in
the beginning the
general theorems relating to products of variables, quotients of constants

etc.
5.
and
variables, quotients of variables,
Do
not teach the geometric proof that

"
If
is
usually
limits
is
given for the theorem,
two variables that have
The proof are always equal, their limits are equal." not conclusive and is rarely understood by students.
6.
not dwell too long upon these topics. The longer you do, the more confused will students become.
Do
CHAPTER XIV
THEOREMS RELATING TO PROPORTIONS

Ratio and proportion. defines a ratio as a fraction.
The modern The finding
school
of a ratio
book and
the determination of a quotient are identical problems. This, however, in many examples involves the notion of
irrational
time
when
numbers, and we can understand that, at a only rational numbers were recognized and
irrational
numbers were considered as impossible, the was considered inThus Euclid and the other ancient geomecomplete.
definition of a ratio as a quotient
ters did not use the arithmetical definition of a ratio.
Even
to-day
it
some authors
geometric,
reject it, because it is non" constitutes a break in the logic of the
geometry," it leads to multiplying lines, etc. But even admitting that the arithmetical definition
less
its
is
scientific, pedagogic advantages are so great can be no question as to whether or not it that there
should be used in our secondary schools. One has only to read Euclid's definition * to be convinced that it is
utterly unfit for
*
young
students.
is
"The
first
of four
magnitudes
said to
have the same ratio to the
second, which the third has to the fourth, when any equimultiples whatsoever of the first and third being taken, and any equimultiples whatsoever of the second and fourth if the multiple of the first be less than that
;
197
198
fact that the arithmetical
The
view of
ratio leads to
a product of two lines is no serious objection, since all difficulties may be removed by defining the product of two lines as the product of their numerical measures.
It
would lead us too
far to discuss the teaching of ratio
and
find
proportion in detail;
place.
The
:
here only one remark may students should understand that a
ratio involves a
statement a b
comparison of two quantities, e.g. the As students 7 I means a is 7 times b.

:
are inclined to use ratio and proportion in an utterly mechanical fashion, it happens sometimes that they for-
illustrations
get what a proportion really is. Frequent numerical will diminish this difficulty. Thus after
we prove
If AB = 3
that
AB:BC = AD:DE,
is
we should
ask,
(BC), what
the relation between
AD
and
DE
This should of course not be restricted to a case
as simple as the one presented here, but every proposition

relating to proportion should be illustrated numerically.
Remarks on
certain theorems.
i.
The
proposition
relating to the segnients

side of a triangle
is
made by a
line parallel to
one
Its
of fundamental importance.
proof, like
new
any proof that establishes proportionality of type of figure, necessarily leads to the incomthis
mensurable case,* although
may be
avoided
if
pro-
portional areas are studied before.

of the second, the multiple of the third is also less than that of the fourth or, if the multiple of the first be equal to that of the second, the multiple
:
is also equal to that of the fourth or, if the multiple of the be greater than that of the second, the multiple of the third is also greater than that of the fourth."
;
of the third
first
* For discussion of
this proof see
Chapter XIII.

It is
199
worth noticing that this theorem is true whether In the parallel meets the sides or their prolongations.
the former case
we have
in-
ternal, in the latter external,
division.
2.
In
demonstrating
of
the
converse
the
preceding
proposition, usually a line parallel to
CE
is
drawn through
to
B.
The
proof, however, be-
comes simpler if a parallel (see annexed diagram).

3.
:
BD
is
drawn through C
In analyzing the proposition of the bisector of an angle of a triangle, i.e. m n = b c, it appears difficult to make students discover the
:
construction of the line parallel

to
the
bisector.
The
matter,
if
however, becomes simple,
we
m
proportional to m,
n,
a problem by requiring the construction of the fourth

it
make
b.
and
tion of the necessary lines,

strate the equality of
4.
and
c,
This produces the construcit remains only to demon-
x and
which
is
not at
all difficult.
The corresponding
is
proposition of the bisector of
the exterior angle
of no great importance unless har-
monic
division is studied. If it is taught, however, students can be led to the discovery of the proof by the absolute analogy of this proposition with the preceding
one. that
With proper
fits
lettering
one proof
may be
written
both theorems.
200
5.
For proving some theorems on similarity of tri angles, a new method for establishing the equality of
lines is frequently applied, viz., the
two
lines are
made
corresponding terms of two proportions whose other terms are respectively equal. Thus if
a b
:
and
then
If this
a b
:
=x =y x = y.
c,
c,
method
is
emphasized and practiced, some

difficulty, e.g.
if
theorems lose a great deal of their

proposition,
the
Two
triangles are similar
their homolo-
gous sides are proportional. 6. In regard to the propositions relating to segments which we obtain if we draw two intersecting chords, or
two bisecting secants, or a secant and a tangent, it may be well to point out that the second and third propositions
are only special cases of the first. The secants may be as chords that are divided externally, and considered
the tangent represents that limiting case of a secant, for which secant and external segment become identical.
EXERCISES RELATING TO PROPORTIONAL LINES

Similar triangles are of the same Simple exercises. fundamental importance in proving the proportionality
of lines, as equal triangles are in proving the equality of
lines.
is in
Hence, we may say, The proportionality of lines most cases proved by means of similar triangles.
tional lines,
Since the greater part of Book III refers to proporand since most numerical calculations of
201
the lengths of lines depend upon proportional lines, the matter is of great importance. The details of the mode of procedure may be described as follows
:
1.
Let the student mark the four
lines
forming
the
brace is a very practical symbol for out each line, and two such braces should be pointing drawn if a line occurs twice in the proportion. Thus
proportion.
to
we
PC prove PA PB = should use the annexed

:
PB
marks.
2. Select two triangles so that each contains two of the
given
lines.
In a few cases,
this can
be accomplished in
ways,
several
and
it
may
selects the
happen that the student
wrong
pair of
tri-
In such a case the impossibility of demonstratangles. the similarity of the triangles should cause the ing Such cases, however, student to select another pair.*
are very rare.
In the above diagram, the triangles are
obviously
J.
PAB
the
is
and PBC.
similarity
Prove
of the two triangles.
In
accomplished by means of equal angles. The equal angles should be marked as indicated in the
most cases this
above diagram. 4. Write the proportion, choosing as

* The
first
term the
maximum number
b, c,
(6,
of triangle pairs
which can be formed from

;
the lines a,
(a, d)
and
and d is three, viz. (a, b) and (c, d) (a, Of these three pairs two can be used c}.
c)
and
(b,
d)
for the proof,
and the
third pair cannot be used.
2O2
first
term of the conclusion.
with that of
Even then the sequence
of terms in the resulting proposition

cal
may
not be identi-
the conclusion, but alternations will
easily
sides,
remedy
in the
this defect.
To
obtain the homologous
we should pay
attention to the
marks
of the angles.
Thus,
above diagram
PA
is
included by the two
marked angles
lies
of the large triangle, hence

is
PB, which
analogously in the small triangle,
the homologous
side.
PB in the large triangle, and PC in the small one,

If we have
are homologous because they are opposite the angles
marked by two marks.

prove that the product of two lines equals the product of two other lines, the mode of procedure is precisely as above, only we have to equate the
5.
to
product of the means and the product of the extremes of the resulting proportion.
Construction of originals.
great
many
exercises
is
of this type should be solved until every student
fully
If textbooks do not give acquainted with this method. a sufficient number of these originals, it is an easy matter to construct them.
First,
a great
many
regular book proportions that
follow later are theorems of this type, and it is expedient to solve nearly all of them to illustrate our method.
To
avoid the student's referring to the text, it is possibly best to use them as illustrations for oral work
when the method is first explained. Such propositions are those of intersecting chords, of intersecting secants,
of a tangent
and a chord, of the right triangle, of the product of altitude and diameter of circumcircle.
203
Secondly, the study of a type figure and the determination of all possible proportions in such figure produces a great many exercises.
For
instance,
if,
in the
annexed
diagram, the altitudes
AD
and
CE
meet
in F,
we have
four simiviz.,
lar triangles in the
diagram,
AFE, ABD, CBE, and

Taking
all
CFD.
A
E
possible combinations,
we
obtain 6 pairs of similar triangles (i

2
3,
~ 2,
and
1^3,
~4,
4,
3~4) and
since each pair of triangles
produces 3 proportions, we have 1 8 proportions in this diagram, and of course 18

products of lines equal to 18 other products of lines. Similarly, if in the annexed
diagram
Z A CD = Z ECB,
y
obtain 3 similar triangles (A CD, EBD and ECB\ and consequently 9 proportions. In the annexed diagram, if Z EBC = Z E
we
'
ABD
then three
tri-
angles are similar
EDA,
and
DBA\
(EBC, and
there are consequently nine proportions.
The
altitude
drawn
fig-
upon the hypotenuse of a right triangle produces a ure in which nine proportions may be proved, etc.
204
Difficult
exercises.
In the more
difficult
exercises
relating to the proportionality of four lines, it is impossible to find two similar triangles so that each contains
two of the given lines. In such cases we have to find a third ratio which may be proved to be equal to each oi
In other given ratios. these theorems are rewords,
the
solved into two of the precedThus, if A'B\ ing kind.
AB
i
\\
and
it
has to be proved that

'
AB ~^~EC r
obviously
Ur rCg
.u j method
fails,
since there exist

lines.
no triangles which contain two of these
But
it is
easy to prove that each of the given ratios equal
OB
OB'
/?/<
Or rr
if
ABCD is
A
-,
a parallelogram and
we have
to prove
EA
J?
EG
we have
again the same
difficulty. y
But
ED
can easily be proved, by means of the regular method, to be equal to each of the given two ratios.
Numerical examples.
Each regular proposition
relat-
ing to proportionality of lines should be illustrated by numerical examples. By such work we familiarize the
student with the facts stated in each proposition, we make sure that he understands the meaning of such

propositions,
20 5
and we obtain an abundance
of simple
and
concrete exercise material, that frequently can be used

for applied problems (see Chapter XVIII).
Each
of the originals on proportional lines

to
may be
useful-
accompanied by a numerical question

ness of proportions.
show the
Thus, after
you prove that the diago-
nals of a trapezoid divide each other proportionally, assign
numerical values to three of the segments and require the fourth, or assign values to the second and third terms, and
let
the fourth be twice the
first,
and require the

difficult, if
is
first.
Exercises of this type are not tion upon which they are based
the propor-
given
they become
somewhat harder
they have to be solved without such proportion.

if
E.g. two sides of a triangle are ten and twelve, the altitude upon
ten equals eight, find the altitude
upon twelve.
Here the student

Still
has to discover the proportion.
more
if
difficult are
the exercises,
one or both of
DC EC= EA = 6,E>. DB, and AB is a diameter, find AB. Or more difficult: If AC is a tangent, EC L AE, AC = 4, AB = 6, find the diameter of
5,
still
the necessary triangles have to be constructed. E.g. if 3,
the circle.
2O6
METRICAL RELATIONS BETWEEN LINES

Propositions
lines.
establishing metrical
relations
between
Before we studied proportions we could establish The introducthe equality or inequality of lines. only tion of proportions makes possible the calculation of the
lines.
numerical values of
As
this leads to a
number
and
an
of applied examples, such as the finding of heights
distances, the subject
is
not without interest.
Theorems
of this type are all those that establish
equation involving the lengths of lines, in particular the Pythagorean theorem, the median proposition, the anglebisector theorem, etc., etc.
ositions
To the ancients all such propof rectangles
meant
relations
between the areas
tions
and squares, while to us they represent algebraic equabetween the numerical measures of lines. Thus /2 = ab pq meant to Euclid that a square is equal to the
difference of two rectangles, while
modern writers are
not afraid to apply algebra to geometry, and to consider the above statement as a simple algebraic equation involving five numbers, 7,
a, b, q,
and^-.
The Pythagorean theorem. The best-known example of this type is the theorem which connects the lengths of
the three sides of a right triangle (a 2 -f ^ = <^) that was proved by Pythagoras about 550 B.C. This proposition is probably the most widely applied theorem of the
entire
geometry
in fact,
it
that
is
frequently applied.
seems to be the only theorem Its great importance has
always been recognized, and it is not surprising that many people have attempted to discover new proofs of

this proposition, so that at
207
present more than 100 are
known.
For the beginner the algebraic treatment is possibly Prove that each arm is a mean proportional, the best.
and derive therefrom the value

arm,
etc.
is
of the square of each
Euclid's proof, which
of course purely geometrical,

triangles
depends upon chiefly on account of

in
the equality of two

its
and
still
is
historic interest
given
many
textbooks.
Very
interesting are the proofs
which cut the squares on the arms into parts which properly united produce the square on the hypotenuse. A proof which deserves mentioning on account of its
brevity, although
it
does not
fit
into the
:
arrangement
of most textbooks,
If
is
the following one
then
and
A BCD
obviously,
=0=
Hence
or
Ka*
Kb*
= = c*.
The inductive Analysis of theorems of this type. makes it a very simple matter to discover sequence
theorems of
this type
and
their proofs.
To
discover,
theorem of the square of a side of a an acute angle, let us form a series of triangle opposite numerical and algebraic exercises, starting with applifor instance, the
cations of the Pythagorean theorem and ending with the required theorem. This may be done as follows :
308
sides of a right triangle
1. Give numerical or literal values to two and require the value of the third side.
2.
isosceles triangle,
3.
Give numerical or literal values to the base and an arm of an and require the altitude.
altitude
Assume
Find the
and one side of an

an
isosceles triangle
and
require the remaining side.

4.
5.
altitude of
equilateral triangle
whose side
altitude
is
given.
given.
_L c,
Find the side of an

b
equilateral triangle
6.
whose
is
If in
the annexed diagram h
10,
7.
8,
and a
17, find c.
if

14, find a.
10,
8, c
8.
In the same diagram, express a in

b,
terms of
9.
h,
and
c.
if
a and
20, b
37, q
10.
=
b
16, find p.
In the
same diagram, express

if
in terms of #,
q.
11.
\$,
9,
and
c
b, c,
25, find a.
12.
In the same diagram, express a in terms of
and/.
Thus the student

and has
arrives at the required proposition,
in addition acquired
some
facility in
attacking
a matter far more imsuch propositions in general, portant than the" knowledge of a single demonstration. Work of this kind is greatly facilitated by the use of
simple notation. We should, as far as possible, designate lines by a single letter, denoting the three sides of a triangle by a, b,c\ the altitudes by h w /i bt h c the
\
medians by
if
ma m m
,
b,
For the notation of

in a proof,
triangles,
let-
quite a
number occur
do not use two

III, etc.
ters,
but
Roman numbers,
as
I, II,
proposition of the square of the side of a triangle furnishes another example,

of directed lines.
Use
The
2OQ
showing how, by the use of directed lines, we may, by one statement, cover several cases which otherwise
would appear as a number of different propositions.
If
we
side c as positive
consider the projection/ of the side b upon the if it lies in the same direction as c,
a triangle
otherwise as negative, then the square of any side a of may be expressed by the formula
:
a2
If the
= P + c2 - 2 cp.
is
;
angle opposite a of the formula vanishes

obtuse, then
positive.
90, then the third term if the angle opposite a is becomes negative, and the third term
of such a general formula
is
The advantage
obvious
in
all
especially
examples in which the character of the angle is not known. Thus, the finding of / when the three sides are given would without the general
formula require a special investigation into the character of a certain angle, before we could decide which
formula
ever,
may be applied. The general formula, howmay always be applied, and the resulting value
will
of
/
Use
inform us whether the angle opposite a

formulae.
is
acute, right, or obtuse.

of
familiarized with the fact that a formula
Students should be thoroughly may be used,
not only to find the quantity which it expresses explicitly, but also for the purpose of finding any one of the quantities involved when the others are known.
Thus the formula
210
a,
should be used, not only for the finding of

for
but also
finding b and
#, b,
c,
and
in particular for the finding
of/ when
and
c are given.
Some
teachers derive
a corollary expressed by the formula
then
let
students memorize
of
this
(2),
by means
hardly
formula.
It
and solve all examples But such a course can

is
be recommended.
to
practically
just
as of
simple
(i) as
find
numerical value of
of (2).
p by means
is
absolutely no reason why the student's memory should be burdened with an unnecessary formula. But, furthermore, by
there
by means
Hence
such practice the student is led to believe that the application of a formula is restricted to the finding
of the quantity which
it
expresses explicitly, a belief
may form quite a hindrance in more advanced work. That such a belief is not uncommon among
that
students,
we may observe
quite frequently.
Propose,
for instance, to students in solid

just derived the
geometry who have

r
formula for the altitude of a regular

of the edge a, f//
tetraedron
H in terms
=-V6\
the
altitude,
opposite problem, viz., to find the edge in terms of the and a great many students will start an
independent geometric investigation instead of using the formula just found. The defect of such a method
is
particularly obvious
when
very difficult, as the finding of the

tetraedron whose volume equals V.
the opposite problem is edge of a regular
211
The
student should become aware that
lems can be solved algebraically, if we lishing any algebraic relation between the two quantities involved, and that hence the two problems, viz., the
finding of the edge
if
such probsucceed in estaball
the volume
is
is
given,
and the
find-
ing of the
alike.
volume
if
the edge
given, are geometrically
Unnecessary
corollaries.
The
reasons advanced in
the preceding paragraph apply with equal force to all succeeding propositions, such as the median theorem,
the proposition of the bisector of an angle of a triangle,

etc.
The
that
practice of deriving
and memorizing
corol-
laries
give explicit formulas
bisector,
etc.,
for median, anglecannot be recommended. In all such
cases the student should memorize only one formula which expresses the fundamental theorem, and solve all
numerical examples by substituting the given values

in this formula.
all
its
Thus, for the median proposition and applications we need only one formula, viz.
:
2 a* + 2 P = 4 m* + c\
and
similarly for other theorems.
An
exception to this rule, however,

:
is
the altitude
formula
A.
= 2 -/s(s-a)(s-/t)(s-c).
in a
concrete numerical example, find the numerical value of the projection/ and then of
Here,
also,
we may,
h,
but the numerical
difficulties of
such a procedure are

so
often
often considerable, while the application of the formula

is
quite
simple.
Moreover, the altitude
is
212
in
more advanced work that the memorizing the formula seems to be justified.
needed
Projections.
of
Numerical examples based upon the above propositions derive a certain interest from the
fact that they
may be
of these
great many but it seems that the great usefulness of this concept is not generally recognized by teachers. It is sometimes
make use
applied to practical examples. " of the projections,'*
believed that certain problems require trigonometry for their solution, while they can be easily solved by pure
geometry,
if
only the proper use of projections

in
<*>
is
made.
If, for instance, in the
and
EC meet
annexed diagram two lines DB A, and the values of AB, BC, CA, AE and AD are given, and DE
y
is
required, then trigonom-
etry would give us
which equals
give
Z BAC, DAE, and
again trigonometry would us or x from
DE
A ADE.
angle
itself,
In geometry
we
do not need to find the

of the angle
but the projection of a segment of one side upon the other side. Thus in the above
find
the projection of upon AB. Similar right triangles give us the corresponding projecin A ADE, and hence we easily find tion or x.
diagram we
AF,
AC
AG
DE
Whenever an angle is found by a trigonometrical solution as an intermediate result only, to be used again for the calculation of lines, the same work can usually
be accomplished with the aid of pure geometry by
in-
213
Such a projection takes the troducing projections. place of the angle (or rather its trigonometric function).
To illustrate further: If the three sides of a triangle ABC, and the distances BE and BD are given, and DE is required, we would proceed
A ABC,
then
trigonometrically by first solving obtaining thus Z B, and

obtain
DE
B
A DBE.
Angle
by solving would be an
A
,
intermediate result only. In plane geometry we introduce the projection
^,
D ^
__
,
FB
instead of
angle B, find by
ing projection
(the trigonometric function of) similar right triangles the correspondy
GB
and
finally obtain
DE
from
A DEB.
may be used for some of the regular To find m c propositions, e.g. the median proposition. in terms of a, b, and c, determine first p in the projecThis method
tion of b
upon
c,
and then from
b,
m, -
determine m.
Obviously
a line
we
that does not bisect
could find by this method the length of c, but that divides it in any
c in the ratio
given ratio. If m divides not difficult to prove that
/,
then
it is
0&+02
Relation between angle and projection.
In most cases
the value of a line and
its
projection will not lead to the

;
numerical value of the included angle and vice versa, the value of the angle will not enable us to calculate the
214
projection.
The few
be known to the teacher.

student,
tion of
it is
exceptional cases, however, should For the secondary school
sufficient to
know how
to find the projecis
one line upon another if the included angle 30, 45, or 60, and their respective supplements.
however, possible to calculate the projections for
It
all
is,
angles which equal the central angles of regular polygons that can be constructed with rules and compasses,
e -gl
$> 2 4
l8
>
22
etc -*
Angles the number
of
sible, if
is integral make such calculations posare multiples of 3, as 6, 9, 12, etc. they Among the easiest ones to derive is the projection /
whose degrees
of a line a,
if
/ and a
include an angle of 22
30', viz.,
Construction of exercises.
this
To
construct exercises of
type we
may
assign numerical values at
random
to
certain lines, e.g. the sides of a triangle,
the numerical value of other

bisector, etc.
lines,
and require as the median angle-
The
only difficulty that
may
arise
is
the
complexity of the numerical work, and for obtaining simpler, especially rational, results the following formulae
may be
useful.
If m and n are positive integers, Right triangle. which are relatively prime, if m > then rational
,
values of three sides of a right triangle by the formulae \

:
may be
obtained
t If
* See Chapter XVI. we wish to obtain values that have no
common
factor,
and n
should not both be odd.

a
215
= m 2 *& = 2 W. c = w 2 4- aft
;
Thus, the values

25
;
3, 4, $
5,
12, 13;
15, 8, 17;
7, 24,
21, 20, 29, etc.,
may
and
3
be obtained.
are well
The
values
5, 4,
used to construct a right angle.

triangle the ratio of
If
known and may be we have a right

Thus,
it
two of whose sides conforms with

if
these numbers,
c
55, a
= 44,
33.
easy to find the third. then without further calculation

it
is
follows
that
If in A ABC, Triangle containing an angle of 60. and a lies opposite A, then the following formulae produce rational sides
Z.
A = 60
= m* n*. c = (2 m ;/). a = w2 mn +
b
1
*>
2
.
Thus,
If ^4
we
find
5, 8,
7;
3, 8,
7;
8, 15,
13;
9, 24,
21;
11, 35, 31, etc.
120, we change b to m(2 n

If
m), but leave
a and a
unaltered.
Median.
y
m,
n, /,
and q are positive integers, and

then the following
b,
and
c the sides of a triangle,
formulae produce triangles with a rational
x = mp + (2 m + n)q. y = (m + n}p + nq.

z
= np +
may
2(m
-f n)q.
Similarly formulae
be given for triangles that
2l6
altitudes,
have two or three rational medians, rational

etc.
bisectors, or areas, or pyramids having rational volumes,
sult the
Readers wishing information on this subject may conchapter on indeterminate equations in the text-
books on higher algebra.
CHAPTER XV
LOCI
Scientific aspect of loci.
Definition.
The two
con-
ditions that
must be
satisfied to
make
:
a line the locus of
a point are usually stated as follows 1. Every point in the line must satisfy the given condition.
2.
No
point without the line must satisfy this condiis
tion.
not a pedantic, unnecessary clause without a practical value, but an absolutely essential If we omitted it, we would in part of the definition. some cases be led to consider a part of a locus as a
part
The second
complete locus, while in others we would obtain a locus when there is none. The following two examples illustrate these points
I.
:
the distances of a point from two fixed points by m and n respectively, and the projections of m and n upon AB by p and q* then every point in
If
we denote
and
the perpendicular bisector of satisfies the condition nt 1 in 2 p q. Hence, if we did not examine points without we would
:
AB
the perpendicular bisector the locus of the point X, which satisfies the above condition (m 1 n'2 p ^), and we
consider
would not obtain the other and more
inter-
esting part of the locus, viz., the circle
whose diameter
is
AB.
217
218
2. Every point X in line which the midpoints of two sides of an equilateral satisfies the following condition:
DE
&ABC
The sum
X upon
of the perpendiculars dropped from the three sides is equal to the altitude of the triangle. Hence, if we did not
examine the points without

consider
is
DE
we would
as a locus, while actually it no locus at all, since every point within
DE
the triangle
condition.
ABC
satisfies the
above condition.
If
we admit negaabove
tive distances,
then every point in the entire plane
satisfies the
Another way
that:
1.
of
proving a locus would be to show

satisfies
Every point that
the condition
lies in
the
line.
2.
The
line contains
no points which do not
satisfy
the condition.
Again the second part must not be omitted, since the line may contain all points satisfying the condition, and Hence we may others that do not.
be led
to consider a line as locus, only
is*
a part of which
If,
really a locus.
and B are two fixed which satisfies the condition Z AXB = 45 lies in one of the two circles AXB and AX B. But it would
for instance,
points, every point
be erroneous to say the locus consists of the two circles, since there are points in the two circles which do not satisfy the condition, viz., all points in the minor arcs.
Hence
unless
we
consider a line
as consisting of an infinite
number

of points,
2ig
and define a locus as the sum
total of all
points satisfying a condition every proof of a locus involves the proofs of two theorems, and these two
theorems stand
or
in the relation of
theorem and converse,

concrete
theorem and opposite.

this
A
fact
example
will
make
clearer.
is
The
that
the perpendicular
bisector of a line
the locus of a point equidistant from the ends of the line implies four theorems
:
I.
THEOREM
in the line
II.
CONVERSE
is
Every point
is
Every point that
equi-
equidistant.
III.
distant lies in the line.
OPPOSITE
IV.
CONVERSE OF OPPOSITE
Every point without

unequally distant.
is
Every point
distant
is
unequally without the line.
locus
is
true
if all
four theorems are true, and vice
But we saw in a preceding chapter * that these four theorems must be true, if any two adjacent ones
versa.
are true,
II, or
first
proved if we demonstrate I and and IV, or III and IV. The two combinations were discussed above, the last
i.e.
the locus
is
and
III, or II
two are hardly ever used.

It is
eral.
easy to see that the above facts are quite genIf we discard the two last combinations, we may
say that each locus can be demonstrated in two different ways, and it is worth noticing that these two ways vary in difficulty for different exercises. To make a
*
Chapter
DC
220
wise choice between the two methods

consider the
identical, but
first
we do
not need to
we have
is
part of each combination, for they are to consider whether the converse
easier to prove.
or the opposite
To demonstrate, for instance, that the bisector of an angle is the locus of a point equidistant from the sides of the angle, we have to prove either, that every point equidistant from the sides lies in the bisector, or that every point without the bisector is unequally distant
from the sides.
easier in this case.
The
first
way,
i.e.
the proof of the converse,
is
the other hand, for proving that the locus of the vertex of a triangle whose base is a fixed line, and whose vertical angle equals a
On
given angle,
is
a segment of a
circle,
the opposite leads to the result
more
easily than the converse.

is
If a locus Proofs simplified by the use of loci. four theorems are established, and this fact proved,
is
sometimes useful for proving theorems. Suppose we have proved the locus " A plane perpendicular to a line
:
the locus of a point equidistant from midpoint the ends of a line," and we wish to demonstrate the " Three points not in a straight line, each theorem
at its
is
:
equidistant from the end of a
line,
dicular bisecting plane of the line."

will start
determine a perpenAs a rule students
an independent investigation for this theorem, and not see the connection between it and the preceding
Obviously each of the three points must lie on the perpendicular bisecting plane, according to the preceding locus, and since only one plane can be passed through the three points, this plane is the perpendicular
locus.
bisecting plane.
Some
difficult loci.
all
The most widely used

;
loci are
given in nearly
textbooks
others can be easily con-
221
structed, especially those that relate to the centers of

circles
which
satisfy certain conditions, e.g. circles
which
touch a line at a given point, touch a circle at a given Also point, touch a circle and have a given radius, etc.
proportional division of lines that radiate from a certain point and terminate in other lines yields many loci.*
few
difficult loci,
which are valuable
in solving diffi-
cult exercises,
Let
may
not be without interest.
A
If
and
be two fixed points, and
x and y
their respective
distances from a third point X.

1.
x1
x*
is
2 is a constant, the locus of is a circle whose center the midpoint of (proof by the median proposition)
+y
AB
2.
If
y2 is
meeting
3.
AB
a constant, the locus of_A' is a straight line J2 2. at a point C so that CB* = x*
AB
AC
~y
If - is a constant, the locus of
is
a circle.
The ends
of a
diameter of this circle are obtained by dividing
AB internally
and externally in the ratio x to y. and n be the perpendiculars dropped from a point Let
X upon
the sides of an angle

4. If
ABC.
m+n
is
;
rectangle
if
a constant, the locus of is the perimeter of a n is a constant, the locus consists of the
prolongations of the sides of the same rectangle.

5..
If
is
a constant, the locus of
is
a straight line passing
through B.
When to teach loci. Pedagogic aspect of loci. deal has been said and written about the imporgreat
tance of
loci,
topic in schools.
and the insuffiency of the treatment of this The importance of loci in advanced
writers,
* See page 247.
mathematics appears to have influenced some
222
to consider loci the
who seem
the geometry course, and wish
most important subject in to have this subject
taught in a rigorous fashion at the very beginning of the work.
Important the subject undoubtedly is, still one ought not to go to the extreme of neglecting other topics on this account, and of introducing it at a time when the
is not ready for it. an exact presentation of the subject at the give beginning of the first book can hardly be recommended,
student's
mind
To
although the term "locus'*

visional
may be mentioned in
a pro-
form when the theorem of the perpendicular bisector of a line, or of the bisector of an angle, is
It may then simply be stated that the locus is studied. the " place," i.e. the line, in which a certain point must An exact formal study it is probably better to postlie.
pone
to the
end of the second book.
Scientifically, of
course, some
of the simplest problems, such as the con-
struction of a triangle
loci,
whose
sides are given,
depend
but such problems may be treated in the beupon ginning quite satisfactorily without any reference to loci. The teaching of the term " locus" formal defini-
tion of locus will of course not

to the student as
illustrations.
convey as clear a notion
an explanation based upon numerous Easy examples taken from mechanics
show
or
lie,
that under certain conditions a point
must move
in a certain line, or in a certain surface.

:
Thus
we may ask "Where must
the center of a wheel
lie,
while the
wheel moves on a straight track?

" If the locus
is
223
the place, or the
line,
in
which a
point must lie, what is the locus of the center of the wheel in the preceding question ? " What is the locus of one end of a stretched string,
if
the other end

?
is
if
fixed,
and both ends are on the
sur-
face of a table
Similarly,
only the
moving end
is
on the table?"
a corner of a
we may
find the locus of
book when the book

car while
is
it
is opened, of a point of an elevator moves, of a point of a locomotive while it turned on a turntable, etc.*
Another
class of exercises that
may be used
to give
is
to the student a clear idea
what a locus
stu-
really
are
drawing
dent
exercises.
Let the
draw perfectly empirically a large number of points exactly

satisfying
certain
condition,
and by joining these points find the locus. Thus he may draw
empirically the locus of the midpoints of a set of parallel chords
in
all
any closed curve.

loci
Practically
relating
to
elementary
treated
this
geometry
way.
may
be
few additional illustrations suitable for empirical drawing work

:
are the following The locus of the ends of
all
tangents of a given length drawn to a
given
*
circle.
The idea that a locus is generated by a moving point, or is the place where one point must lie, finds its expression in the phrase "locus of a point," which is possibly more widely used than "locus of points."
224
The
point
locus of the feet of all perpendiculars drawn from one fixed upon lines drawn through another fixed point B.
y
The
given
locus of the centers of
all circles
of given radius touching a
circle.
The
of
line
locus of the midpoints

parallel to a given in the
all lines
and terminating
e.g.
perimeter of a given polygon, a parallelogram.
locus of a point lying within a square (2x2 inches), and a distance of \ inch from the perimeter, etc. having
The
To discover
loci,
we use
practically the
same method
as in the preceding
drawing is to determine what kind of a

to
paragraph. Of course the mere then no longer sufficient. The student has
line the locus
is,
and has
prove his result.

to
most cases
cient to
locus, let
But the drawing will lead him in If a few points are not suffithe result.
the pupil discover the character of the
points,
make
him increase the number of these
and
if his drawing is exact, he will hardly fail to see what kind of a line the required locus is. In addition to the six or seven which practically all
textbooks contain, and which the student
is
expected to
remember, a considerable number of others should be

given merely for the purpose of giving the student facility in such work.
Loci are used to find points which satisfy two conditions (in solid geometry someApplication of
loci.
times three), and
method
others.
is
that
it
the great advantage of the locus enables us to consider each condi-
tion separately
without paying any attention to
the
22j
Thus
lines
M and
:
to find a point
point A, conditions
1.
N, and we have
at a given distance
to
X, equidistant from two given d from a fixed

consider
the
following
two
Xis
The
2.
equidistant from J/and N. from distance of equals d.
Each condition
leads to a locus, and
it
is
advisable
to distinguish these loci
from each
other, and from the
other lines of the dia-
gram, by some graphic

distinction.
Thus we
the
lines
may draw
that
first
constitute
the
locus in one color,
and the second locus

in
a
if
different
color.
Or
no
will
colored
crayon
is
available,
long-dotted
and short-dotted
colors
lines
may
be employed.
The two
diminish the danger of confusion in de-
termining the points of intersection of the two loci. " In most cases a "discussion of the problem should be
given, />.,
we should determine
the condition that would
lead to no solution, or to one or to
more
solutions.
PUTTING GIVEN PARTS TOGETHER WITHOUT ANALYSIS

simplest constructions of figures are those that can be accomplished by a simple putting together of the given parts without any previ
General remarks.
The
226
ously devised plan.* To construct a triangle having two sides and the included angle is such a simple mat-
no special analysis is necessary we simply draw one given part, place the next one in its required There is no difficulty in constructions of position, etc. The diffithis type if attention is paid to one point, viz.
ter that
;
:
culty of
tJic
cons trhc turn usually depends upon the
cJioice
of the part that is

It is easier to
drawn first. draw a right
triangle having given the
hypotenuse and an arm, by drawing at first the right angle or the arm, than by starting with the hypotenuse.
To
and an angle,
construct a quadrilateral having given the four sides is a very simple matter if we commence
with the angle or with one of the adjacent sides, but it becomes very difficult if we start with one of the other
sides.
sides
and the angle opposite one
In constructing a triangle having given two of them, we should
begin with the angle or the adjacent side, but not with the opposite side, etc.
Fundamental constructions
trations of the
of triangle.
Typical
illus-
method discussed in the preceding paraare the fundamental constructions of triangles graphs that may be referred to by the symbols s.s.s., s.a.s.,
s.s.a.j s.a.a., a.s.a.,
ticular
and hy. arm.f They derive a parimportance from the fact that a large percentage
problems finally depend upon the construction of triangles, and thereby upon one of these six problems.
of
*
It
was pointed out
in
one of the preceding paragraphs that the
simple constructions of this type are, strictly speaking, based upon loci, but that a knowledge of loci is not necessary for understanding them.
t
Hy. arm
is
of course only a special case of s.s.a.

It is
227
very convenient to use for all triangle construca notation to which reference has been made tions
before,* namely, that of designating the parts of a angle as follows
:
tri-
The The The The The The The The The One
sides
opposite vertices
corresponding angles corresponding medians corresponding altitudes

radius of circumcircle
by a, b, c by A, B, C by a, /3, 7 f
by
m a m me
,
b,
by h a h b ke
,
,
corresponding angle-bisectors by
/a ,
4, tc
by
radius of incircle
area of the triangle half the perimeter
by r by F by
s
It is worth noticing that a triangle is determined if Thus a triangle can three independent parts are given. be constructed if the three sides, or two sides and an
included angle, or the three medians are given, for these But a triangle is not parts are independent parts.
determined
if
the three angles are given, for the three
angles are dependent, and really represent only two
independent parts.
exist
Hence an
infinite
number
of
tri-
angles other illustrations of dependent parts are the following

b,
which contain the given angles.

r.
few
:
A at C\
a,A,R\ A,s-a,
is
Similarly a quadrilateral
* See page 208.
determined by
5,
a polygon
t If Greek letters are objected to, we may use the letters A, although this sometimes leads to ambiguities.
B,C
228
of n sides
It should be 3, independent parts. by 2 n mind, however, that a problem is not called indeterminate because it has several solutions.
borne
in
problem
finite.
is
indeterminate
if
if it
has an
infinite
number
solutions
of
is
solutions, determinate
the
number
of
its
Thus a problem
is
that
has four different solu-
tions
a determinate problem. problem that has no solution

All
that
is
problem. problems account of the dependence of the given parts become impossible if the given parts do not conform to the
relation of dependence.
are
an impossible indeterminate on
Thus no
if
triangle can be
drawn
containing three given angles is not equal to 1 80.
the
sum
of these angles
GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE PROBLEMS

General description.
All problems that cannot be
solved by a direct putting together of given parts or by means of loci should be attacked by analysis.
Many
different general presentations of the
mode
of
analyzing a problem have been given, but most of them are too abstract to be of great service to the beginner.
The
author has attempted to give, in the following, a description of an analysis as elementary and concrete as
it loses thereby some of its generality. a diagram resembling the one required but not necessarily having the same dimensions.
possible, although
1.
Make
all lines, (b) all angles, that are or that can be easily found from the given directly given, parts, and mark all these parts.
2.
Determine (a)

3.
229
the triangles of the diagram until you discover one that can be constructed. 4. Make this triangle the basis of the construction,
all
Examine
and try
to
determine successively
all
other points of
the figure. In case 5.
no triangle can be found that can be
constructed directly, draw additional lines which will enable you to obtain such a triangle.
concrete illustration.
To
obtain a clearer underrules let
standing of the
meaning and scope of these

viz.
c
.
us consider a concrete example,

triangle having given
1.
/3, 7/ a ,
To
construct a
and
To
obtain a figure resembling the required one,

triangle
we draw any
and
2.
ABC,
C.
AD
the altitude from
CE the
median from
If triangle
ABC
and
were the
:
required one,
(a)
(6)
we should know
// tt
),
=m
c }.
B
3.
If
ADB
4.
we examine the various triangles, we find that contains one known side and two known angles,
and hence can be constructed.

After this triangle determine E> the midpoint of
the length of
ADB
is
constructed,
we can
C, for
AB, and then
CE
is
given.
Discussion of the parts of an analysis.

I.
Drawing of diagram resembling
the required one.
Obviously, the average student, in attacking a com-
230
plex problem, has no clear conception of the given parts, of the required parts, and of their relations to each
other, until he sees a
diagram representing
at first a
all
these
things.
Every
architect or engineer, in solving a practi-
cal problem, will
make
rough sketch that
will
enable him to see clearly the relation of the various points to be considered, and only after the problem is
solved, will he
make an
exact diagram of the proper
Similarly the student of geometry needs a sketch to make clear to him the real nature of the
dimensions.
problem.
Of course such
a sketch will not necessarily

it
have the same dimensions as the required figure, and would be foolish even to attempt to draw it so.
2.
Determination of known parts.
Let the student
systematically examine all lines and all angles of the diagram, and let him determine those that are known.
In doing so he
may
for the construction.
include a few that are not necessary But, as a rule, it is advisable for
the beginner to be systematic in this work, since his chances for finding a solution are increased thereby.
determination of the parts that are not given directly, but that can be found, is a matter of great importance, but as this subject is rather complex it will be discussed in a special section.*
3.
The
To
Discovery of a triangle that can be constructed. look for a triangle as the basis of a construction is, of
course, an arbitrary limitation, as it may be a point, or a square, or a circle, or other figure that can be drawn
first.
In most cases, however,
it is
a triangle that can
* See page 233.

be used as the formation of the construction.
231
A sys-
tematic survey of all triangles of the diagram can hardly fail to make the student discover the proper triangle.
4.
Make
the triangle the basis of the construction.
After the
initial triangle is
constructed,
it
is
usually a
simple matter to find the rest of the figure.

gestions
few sug-
may prove
helpful in
complex
cases.
(a) Place the diagram of the construction, as far as

possible, in a position similar to the
diagram of the
analysis
much
the
confusion
is
thereby avoided.
for
() Use
hand
same
letters
struction as for the analysis.

to the teacher a written
As
designating the constudents only rarely
account of an analysis, no misunderstanding can arise from such a practice. If you expect your students to write out the analysis, then
use
A B\ O
1
,
',
etc.,
for A, B, C,
etc.
(c)
In
many examples
the student has a choice of
several
ways
for completing the construction.

is
In such
a case select the construction that
easiest of proof.
Suppose, for instance, the student, in constructing a triangle having given m ay m bt and m c has constructed
,
A OAB so that OA = f m a and OB = \ m and OE = \ m

,
bt
c.
He may
ure
then complete the
fig-
either
by
its
producing
EO
join-
by twice
ing,
length
and
\n
or
by producing
AO
and and joining
BO, by one
half their lengths
to
and
respectively.* * There of
are,
The
course,
first
still
way, however, gives a much
other ways of completing the figure.
232
hence
it
simpler proof than the second,

selected.
5.
should be
Drawing additional
lines
lines.
In case
find
any draw additional
triangle that can be constructed,
we cannot we have to
which produce such
triangles.
The general
principles that underlie this procedure
are rather complicated, and will be treated in the section on difficult analysis.*
tively simple illustrations
Here only a few comparafind place.
may
To construct a triangle having given *z, b, and c If ABC were the required A, we should know CB (=0), CA (=), and CD(=mc ). Hence, no triangle can be But if we produce CD by constructed.
.
its own length to and draw EB, we can construct CEB, for we know its three
sides.
point
F to Z>,then we can construct A CDF, for CD = m CF = -, and DF = 2 2

c,
Or we may
bisect CZ?,
and join
its
mid-
length to since
CG =
a
and draw GB. CB~ a, and
Or we may produce AC by its own Then A BCG can be constructed,
BG = 2 m
e.
If
sum
it is
or difference of two lines (or angles)
is
given,
usually necessary to construct that

;
sum
or
difference in the analysis thus if a 4- b is given, prob duce a by the length b or b by the length a. If a
is
given, lay off b on a, or a on
b.
Thus, to construct an equilateral triangle, having given the difference of side and altitude, we may on CA lay off CD and
C=
* See page
239.

draw
233
DE.
structed, since
Then A AED can be conwe know one side (EA)

off
and
all
angles.
Or we may on CD lay and draw AH. Then

constructed.
CH
'
CA
&ADH
can be
For further
illustrations of the preced-
ing methods, and exercises based upon them, the reader is referred to Schultze and Sevenoak's Geometry.
GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF DIFFICULT PROBLEMS

The
principles of the preceding section are sufficient
to solve the large majority of the
problems that occur
in secondary schools,
necessary for such schools.

it
and hence they constitute all that is For the teacher, however,
is
of great importance
mastery of the subject, will be given here. They consist of further elaboration
of parts
more complete and hence additional methods

to obtain a
two and
five of the analysis as
given above,
viz.
(a)
Method
Methods
for determining lines
and angles of the

lines,
diagram, and
(6)
for
drawing additional
which
will
lead to triangles that can be constructed.* * Methods for determining the known parts of a dia-
gram.
To
that
gram
are
discover in an analysis all parts of the dianot given directly, but that may be
found indirectly, the student has to be acquainted with regular propositions of geometry. Thus, he has to know that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other,
*
sen,
The most important book on methods

Methods and Theories, Kopenhagen,
of attack
is
the
work
of Peter-
originally written in Danish,
but translated into German (Kooenhagen) and French.
234
that the
sum
is
180, that the
opposite angles of an inscribed quadrilateral are supplementary, that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other, etc. If, for instance, in a triangle
-f yS is
given, 7 can be determined.
If in
an isosceles
all
triangle one
interior or exterior angle is
known,
other
interior or exterior angles
But
a
in
may be determined, etc. addition to these well-known geometric
facts,
number
of relations that exist in certain diagrams are
of great importance for successful analyzing.
Some
of
the most important ones are the following

i.
If in
CB, then
&ABC, ACis in & ABD:

*D
produced
to
D so
that
CD =
AB =
c.
c/
I
= 90 Z ABD =- nn + -*~
.
The
altitude
from
B=
//&.
and Hence, if of the parts <:, # b, a, 7, /8 any can be conthree independent * ones are known, A structed and the remaining three parts can be determined.
,
ABD
In some analyses involving a + b it would be better produce BC by the length CA thus making a triangle a~ ^ that contains a + b, c, ft, 90 + ^, and Aa ,
to
9
* Of the twenty possible combinations, only tw<^ give dependent

parts, viz., c, a, k>,
and
7,
EXERCISES
Construct
i
.
A ABC,
a, y.
having given
2.
3.
4.
5.
+ a + a + +
a
6.
7. 8.
+ b,
+ + +
,
.
ft y.
a,
y,
y,
b, c,
,
a.
a
a
A& .
ft
9.
4.
y.
69
ii.
10.
^t a
j8,
bj* -ft * a
2.
If in
on
we
lay off
C =
C^4, then in
A ABE,
The
altitude
from
A = h*.
if of the parts c, a /8, 7, and Aa b, /8, a three independent parts are known, the any and the other three parts may be constructed.
Hence,
&AEB
If
we produce CA
to F, so that
CB, then triangle ABF is determined by any combination of
CF=
three independent elements that can be formed from the elements

:
c,
b, a,
/9,
7,
and A6
Exercises relating to this diagram
obtained by substituting minus signs for plus signs in the preceding set of exercises.
may be
236
3.
If
in
&ABC,
or
the the
/c ,
altitude
CD
hc
angle-bisector
CE
or
or
of
and
the
radius
the
circumcircle
CO
be
drawn, then
Triangle constructed
given h c and 4, or h c and a
It
is
CDE
if
can be
are
there
/S,
or
4 and a
the
- /3.
worth
remembering that
passes through
perpendicular
bisects arc
bisector of
in F,
AB
and
AB
and that
CE
produced also passes through F.
EXERCISES
Construct
12.
A ABC,
if
there are given
17.
18.
a-, R.
a
/?,
c.
14. 15-
^c a
,
/3,
19.
^f c
a.
tc
16.
/e ,
,a-$,b. a-fty.
22.
20.
21.
4.
In triangle
or
BD or
and make
h c be the altitude upon c, be the projection of a upon c,

of
ADorvbe the projection
h upon
*:,
DH= AD.
237
Then
in
triangle
BCH,
Z HCB = a altitude from C= h

ft,
and
c.
the
if
of the parts a, b
,
Hence, u v
t
^~
u
are known,
hc
a,
ft,
/S,
any independent
three
A CAB
can be constructed.
EXERCISES
Construct
23.
A ABC,
a, b.
if
there are given
a-
/?,
25.
aa,
ft
v.
t/,
26.
ft,
5.
If in triangle
is
^57,
CB
that
BF~ b,
produced and
to /^ so
FG
is
drawn perpendicular to CA, then in A C/^, CF
^ Z C=%
= 90.
tains a
b,
and
Z CGT^
Similarly, a right triangle can be obtained that con-
hb
and
C.
EXERCISES
Construct
27. 28.
A ABC,
<5,
having given
ha
+ ^,
y.
b.
29.
â
^6
a,
30.
A few additional cases may be mentioned briefly.

C
A
6.
OB
A ABC> D
and
a point of con2
r,
If
is
the incenter of
tact,
then
O'D =
AD = s-a,
O'AD = -
7.
If
O is
the circumcenter of
then
=%
is
and
A ABC, and OELAB, OE = R.

median
(TZ> of
8.
If a
A ABC
length
produced by
,
its
own
y
to
then in
BE = b>
1
A CEB C=a, = 2 ^ Z CA5 = CE

c,
80
7,
the
altitudes
from
E
A
and
C
/?.
equal
respectively
and
239
EXERCISES
Construct
31. 32.
A ABC if there are given

y
m ,a
c
y.
ft.
33. 34.
c,
a, r.
.
a, a,
y?,
a, m a
35.
mâ.h^
additional
lines.
Methods
for
drawing
The
fact
that in certain problems no triangle can be found that can be constructed directly, is usually due to the cir-
cumstance that the known parts do not lie together. Consequently, we have to bring them together, and any
method that
will
accomplish
this
may be employed.
There are three methods of moving figures that are most useful. These methods, already mentioned in the chapter on inequalities,* are the following ones
:
I.
Translation.
II.
III.
Rotation about a point. Rotation about a line.

is
The application of these methods concrete examples.

I.
I.
best explained by
Translation.
To
construct
quadrilateral
AfCDy
(a,
/?,
having given its four angles y, 8) and two opposite sides

n).
\l
(AB = m,CD =
Analysis.
required
ABCD
quadrilateral,
we
were the should

sides
know
its
four angles,
and the
AB and
CD. As no triangle can be constructed, we translate AB into the Since position DE, i.e. we make DE equal and parallel to AB. ADE = 1 80 a, we know in A DEC two sides and the included
* See page 164.
240
angle, viz.,
1
80.
Hence,
ED = m, DC = n, and Z EDC = 8 A EDC can be constructed.
(180
a)
+8
2.
To
n
construct a rectangle so that each side passes through one of four given fixed points A, B, C, and
Z?,
and that one side of the rectangle

Analysis.
If
equals a given line n.
MNPQ
were the
re-
quired rectangle
we should know
MQ
N
can be constructed.
= ri) and all lines joining any two of ( the given points. But no triangles, except those formed by A, B, C, and D,
Hence, translate
MQ
then
&ACE can be constructed.

3.
EC (=), Z.AEC
the base
(=90), and
AC
into the position EC, are known. Hence
On
AB
of
A ABC
to con-
struct a parallelogram
ABDE
so that
CE
and
CD
equal two given lines.

If
Analysis.
ABDE
were the required

construct
parallelogram, since we know
we could
its
A ECD^
Hence,
three sides.
But we can-
not place
translate
it
A ECD
in the correct position. into the position
ABF.
Here it can be constructed, and by making AE and BD parallel to FC we may translate

it
into the required position.
4. To construct a Quadrilateral having given its four sides, and the line joining the mid-points of two opposite sides. If were the required quadrilateral, we should Analysis.
ABCD
know AB, BF, FC, CD, DE, EA, and EF. Since the parts do not
form triangles, draw
parallel to parallel
EG
AB, and EH equal and Since triangles to DC.
equal and
BGF
is
and
CHF
are equal,
a straight line and can be constructed, Hence, A
GFH GF-FH.
GEH
having given two sides and the
median
to the third side.

5. To draw a line equal and parallel to a given line has one end in the curve C, the other in the curve C'. Translate the curve C
241
MN which
C'
by the distance
MN
in to
the position C".
Then
any
line
point in
drawn from a C" parallel to
J/TVând terminating in C will be equal to MN.
The
is
required line
X,
XY
drawn from
the
point of intersection of
C" and C.
curves
Since in place of the we may have
the pestraight lines, rimeter of triangles or other figures, circumferences, cases are covered
etc.,
a large
number of concrete
by
this
example.
EXERCISES
1.
2.
To To
construct a trapezoid, having given
its
four sides.
construct a trapezoid, having given the two diagonals
and
the two parallel sides.
angle,
To construct a quadrilateral, having its four sides and the formed by the prolongations of two opposite sides. 4. To construct a quadrilateral, having given two opposite sides, the diagonals, and the angle formed by the diagonals.
3.
5.
To
construct a quadrilateral
ABCD,
having given the angles
and B, the diagonals
AC
and BD^ and the angle formed by the
diagonals.
II.
i
.
Rotation about a point.
To
construct a square
ABCD,
having given the distances of a

C.
point
P within from the vertices A, B, and
242
Analysts.
If
ABCD
square, we should know PA, PB, and the angles A, B, C, and D.
A BPC
Then
about
were the required and PC, Rotate through an angle of 90.
A BPP can be constructed, and since PA PC, A P PA can also be drawn, etc.
2.
PBP = 90
and BP'
= BP.
Hence
To
construct an isosceles
&ABC
so
the vertical angle equals a given has a fixed position, and angle a, that
that
that
and
lie
respectively
on two given curves*

Solution.
M and
M
A
IV.
Rotate curve
about
this rotation
through an angle equal to a. By to M, as any line from

.
AD', takes a position AD' which forms with AD an angle equal to Or any two lines drawn from A, including an and ending in and angle equal to
,
M'
_
.,/
respectively are equal. 7 intersection of M' and
If
",
is
the
AX and Ay so
A AXy\s
that
Z XAY
then draw '= a, and
the required triangle.
A
and
combination of translation
rotation
is
used
in
the
following problem.
3. To construct a square so that two opposite sides pass through two given points and B, and the
MNPQ
other two opposite sides pass through the given points C and D.
Since no triangle can Analysis. be constructed, rotate AB, AN, and BP about A through an angle of 90.
" " * For the sake of brevity the term curves is used here and on the following pages, when curves, straight lines, broken lines, in fact all kinds of lines, are meant.

If ff f is the
243
new
four parallel lines
through A,
1
position of B, our problem would be to draw /?', C, and /?, so that the distance of
the first pair equals the distance of the second pair. This is done by translating AB into the position CE.* Our two pairs of parallels become then identical. Hence we can draw A CED.
EXERCISES
1 To construct a regular hexagon ABCDEF, having given the distances of a point within from A, />\ and C.
.
2.
Compute
point within from A, B, and
if the distances from a the area of a square C are respectively two, three, and four.
ABCD
(Rotate two &.)

3. Construct a right isosceles triangle so that the vertex of the right angle takes a fixed position and the other vertices lie in two
given circumferences.
4. To construct an equilateral triangle so that its vertices respectively in three given parallel lines.
5.
lie
To
construct an equilateral triangle so that
its
vertices lie in
three given concentric circumferences.

6.
Given quadrilateral
construct a
ABCD
CD.
and
isosceles
= NP. To
A,
III.
A EFG ~ PMN so
A MNP,
with
MP
that
coincides with
F lies in BC,
and
lies in
Rotation
about a line (turn about an axis).

i. Given two circles and C' on the same N. Reside of a line
in MN" quired a point so that the two (inner)
tangents, to C and
drawn from
respectively,
form equal angles with
MM.
*
second solution
results
if
is
applied to C.
244
Solution.
figure about
Turn
the
MN as
C
E.
an
axis so that
takes the
E. Draw a common interior tangent

position
to
C
X.
and
This
tangent intersects
in
MN
special case of this rotation about a line is
the turning of a figure so that the ends of a

line
i.e.
are
interchanged,
Ay one end of a line, is put in the position formerly occupied by B, and B in the position (Similarly for angles.) formerly occupied by A. 2. In a given circle to inscribe a quadrilateral, having given two opposite sides AB and CD (or a and c) and the sum of the other two sides (AD + BC or s). Suppose
sides
ABCD A
were
quadrilateral.
lie
the required Since no two known
together,
we
turn
&DCA
so that
tions,
and
and
D takes the position //.

and afterward
exchange posi-
Then
A D'AB
can be easily con-
structed,
A D'BC
can be found, having given the base D'B, the opposite angle, and
the
sum of the other two sides. Having thus obtained ABCD*, we
find
it
a very simple matter to
construct
ABDC.
EXERCISES
I.
Construct quadrilateral
ABCD
Q on
if
the four sides are given and
2.
Given two points /'and

Required a point
the
same
X in MJVso that PX QX
-f
side of a straight line

is
minimum
245
vertices lie in two 3. To construct a square so that two opposite given circumferences, and the other two vertices lie in a given
straight line.
4.
equals twice
In a given circle to inscribe a quadrilateral so that one side its opposite side and the two other opposite sides equal
given
lines.
SPECIAL DEVICES
Method
of similarity.
If a required figure contains
only one given line, we may at first discard this line, and construct a figure which is similar to the required one, and then change the
dimensions of the figure so as to contain the given

line.*
i.
To
construct
a triangle,
having given the angles and the upper segment of h a Construction. Construct any
.
triangle containing given angles, and draw its
ABC
the
alti1
Produce OA to A so that OA equals the given upper segment, and then build up the required &A'B'C by means of
tudes.
f f
several similar triangles.
Frequently this method enables us to solve a problem, if we can solve the opposite one. Thus, we can inscribe in a given semicircle a square, if we can circumscribe a
semicircle about the square
into
;
an equilateral
may
triangle,
we can transform a square if we can transform an equi-
lateral triangle into a square, etc.
many cases containing two given a figure in which the two lines have an arbitrary length, but the correct ratio, and then change the dimensions.
be extended to
first
* The method
lines.
Construct then at
246
Oi
^____
i
2.
To
transform a square into Construct any
a regular pentagon.
Construction.
regular pentagon and transform it into a square. Let a be the side
of the pentagon, b the side of the the side of equivalent square,
the given square, and x the side of the required pentagon.
Obviously
P w = a*
2
:
x*.
I.e.,
3.
x is the fourth To construct a

its
proportional to
triangle,
b,
m, and
a.
having given
Solution
.
three altitudes
= ch we
c,
Since ah a bh* can easily find three
lines that are proportional to
^ and c. From any point P draw three secants PA, PB, and PC respectively equal to h a h^ and h c Then the exa,
,
.
terior
segments of these secants

1
,
PA',
PB PC
and
1 ,
are proportional
to a, b,
c.
Hence, a triangle
A"B"Cn
is
whose sides are equal respectively to

If the altitude
PA' f
PB
and P*C,
similar to the required one.
from
11
is
parallel to
produced to "C', then A
so that
A"D=hM
and
MJV is
drawn
A"MNi& the required one.
247
EXERCISES
Construct a triangle, having given
1.
:
a,
2.
3.
ma ,#-*..
/?,
.
a,
/?,
#/ 6
-^
6.
4. Construct a triangle, having given the angles and the distance of circumcenter from incenter.
5.
Transform a square into an equilateral
triangle.
6.
7.
Transform a square into a triangle similar to a given

In a given quadrilateral
triangle.
ABCD
to inscribe a
rhombus whose
sides are parallel to the diagonals of

8.
ABCD.
Inscribe a square into a semicircle.
9.
In a given circle to inscribe a rectangle similar to a given
rectangle.
10. In a given triangle to inscribe a parallelogram similar to a given parallelogram.
Multiplication of curves.
Definitions.
If
from a point
in the
a straight line
is
drawn
C,
to a point
curve
in
and
divides
PA
is
a
of
given
ratio,
then
the
locus
is
a curve
which
simi-
lar to C.
The
curves
and
C
f
are said to be radially situated
with respect to P,
of similitude, and
is
P is the center PA the ratio fA

lies in
called the ratio of similitude.

If the point
A*
the prolongation of
AP,
the
result
is
similar to the
one above.
The
ratio of simili-
248
is
tude, however,
negative, e.g., in the annexed diagram

if
PA
_ -5
in general,
the ratio of similitude
is
nega-
tive,
P lies between the two curves.
The
construction of the curve

is
C when
C
the ratio of
is
similitude
and the center of similitude

by
P,
is
sometimes referred to as multiplying

respect to
~
n
,
with
P.
Thus, in the first diagram C is multiplied by f in the second the circle is multiplied by \ with respect to P.
This multiplication may be also applied to straight lines, broken lines, in fact to any figures whatsoever, and some of the results obtained are the following
:
1.
If a straight line
is
multiplied
by
f
the result
is
another straight line Z', and
and
are parallel.
To
2.
construct
it is
necessary to find one point of L'.

is
If
any figure
multiplied
by
we
obtain a simi-

lar figure.
249
ratio
Homologous angles are
equal,
and the
of
any two homologous

3.
lines is equal to
~
n
result
If a circumference is multiplied
If
by ~, the n
1
again a circumference. the centers, and r and

is
O
the
and
are respectively
radii,
respective
then
PO
=
n
and
r
=
n
Hence
the required circle can easily be constructed by first finding

its
center,
and then
curves
:
its
radius,
Applications.
The
multipli-
cation
of
solves
the
general
problem
From a
draw a
line
it
fixed point
to
so that the segments
made on
by two given
lines *
and
shall bear a given ratio
~"
n
Multiply
Cby -and n
let
the resulting line
intersect
B in X.
is
Then
the re-
PX produced
quired
line.
Thus, draw a line from a circumference C to a

line
XY
point
L, passing through a P, so that

multiply
XPiPY
by
f
=
*
I.e.,
2:3,
curved, straight, broken,
etc., lines.
25
with respect to
/*,*
and
KP and X'P produced
let the resulting line intersect are the required lines.
C in X and JO.
From
be to
its
a point
P without
a circle
to
draw a secant which
shall
and
external segment as 4:3, multiply C by f with respect to intersect C in and X' . let the resulting circle and
PX
PX'
are secants required.
To draw
ences
a line
XY through P and
XP = PY.
i
terminating in two circumfer-
C and
B, so that
Multiply
C intersect B in X. XP produced
1.
C by
with respect to P, and let the resulting circle is the required line.
EXERCISES
2. 3.
Multiply a line Cby Multiply a circle by

Multiply a circle by f
is
f,
by
2.
2 if
if
P lies
AP
in the circumference.
P is
within.
* This
to A',
easily
done by drawing
II
producing
it
by
f of its length
and drawing A 'X
L.

4.
251
Multiply a circle by
if
m and n
:
are
two given
line
:
lines.
5.
From
From
a point
P within
of the angle in
6.
X and Kso that PX PY'= 3

-
an angle draw a
meeting the side
2.
a point without an angle draw a line meeting the sides
of the angle in
7.
X and Fso that PX =
1:2.
straight line L.
point /* and a circumference C lie on opposite sides of a to draw a line that meets L in and Through
that
Cm
8.
Kso
M=
r>y-
,-
|.
a point /> without a hexagon to draw a line that meets so that and the perimeter in =2:3.
From
PX PY
:
9. To draw a line terminated by two circumferences and bisected by a given point P. 10. Through a point within a circle to draw a chord whose segwhen m and n are two given lines. ment shall be as m to
,
Through a point of intersection of two circles to draw a line so that the chords formed are as 2:3.
11. 12.
A point P lies
a chord
in the
minor arc made by a chord AB.

:
From
P to draw
13.
Given a
PQ intersecting AB in R so that PR RQ = 2:1. To conquadrilateral A BCD and a point /* within.

is
struct a parallelogram whose center spectively in the sides of
and whose
vertices lie re-
ABCD.
14.
To
c.
construct (by the above method) a triangle, having given

a, m w m
,
a. b,
15.
1
<z,
b.
6.
b,
y.
Multiplication and rotation.
If a
curve
is
rotated
about a point through an angle equal to a given then any two lines PA and PA which include angle Q,
f
an angle equal to
are equal.
If
and which terminate

multiply
in
C and
we now
by
with respect
252
to
denote the resulting line by C", then any two
P and
lines
PA"
and PA, which include an angle equal

C
to
and terminate
the triangles
Z.
in
C ff
and
C,
have the
ratio
n.
Or
all
PAA n
that have
in C,
A"
of
in
ff
,
and
APA" = Z Q
are similar.
Hence, we
f
may
consider
third
the
locus
the
vertex of a triangle that has
one vertex
in C, another
is
in
P
v
and that
similar to a
given triangle QRS. These considerations enable us to solve the problem
To construct a triangle
A mnq, one vertex in a having given point P, another in a line* C, and a third
similar to a given
in a line
D.
Rotate
Solution.
to
<2,
C about O
through an angle equal

line
a
and multiply the resulting

line
by
* The term "

straight.
"
refers to
any
line, i.e.,
line that is straight,
or not
253
The
intersection of the line
rr
,
thus obtained, with
gives X, one vertex of the required triangle. By makZ Q we obtain the third vertex V. ing
Z XP Y=
(7.
The line C" can often be obtained without constructing Thus, in the above diagram, we could obtain O" by making OPO" ~~ A MPN) and r" equal to the fourth proportional to ,
NOTE.
r.
m, and
EXERCISES
To
construct a triangle similar to a given triangle
the vertex corresponding to

vertices respectively in
1.
at
MNQ, having a fixed point P, and the other two
2.
Two Two
The
parallel lines.
intersecting lines.
3.
4.
5.
A line
and a
circle.
perimeter of triangle and a line.
6.
7.
Two concentric circles. Two excentric circles. To construct a triangle whose
sides are as
3:4:5 and whose

4
:
vertices lie in three concentric circles.

8. To construct a triangle whose sides are as vertices lie in three parallel lines. 5
:
6 and whose
254
ALGEBRAIC ANALYSIS
Algebraic analysis.
Most problems
of
geometry can
of attack
be solved by means of algebra, but

in
this
mode
elementary work
is
not as interesting as the purely

it
geometric ones, since
requires very
little
originality,
and since the constructions thus obtained frequently For the teacher, however, lack elegance and clearness.
who sometimes
is
problem In an algebraic analysis the solution

to
line or lines.
in a very short time,
obliged to get a solution of a difficult it is a useful tool.

is
usually
depend upon the length of some particular
made unknown
The relations of this line or these lines known quantities are expressed by equations, whose solutions express algebraically the unknown line The construction of this in terms of known quantities.
with the
expression leads to the solution. To apply this method the student has of course to be
familiar with the
construction of certain fundamental

e.g.,
algebraic expressions,
ab
etc.,
where
to
a, b,
c,
are
known
lines.
Many complex
algebraic expressions can be reduced

e.g.,
fundamental ones,
The
trated
etc.
general character of the method will be illusby two examples only, and the reader who wishes
is
further details
referred to Schultze and Sevenoak's
Geometry.
i
.
To
Let
divide a line AB in extreme and mean ratio. AB = a, and the greater part of the divided line = x.
Then
x* + ax =
a
a 2.
x= x a
:
x.
^*"
To
then
construct this expression
we draw CB
J.
AB and
equal to -,
AC =
lay off
On CA
Then
CD - CB (or
\
or x.
Therefore, on ^4^ lay
offAF= AD.
256
2. In a given equilateral triangle to in* scribe another equilateral triangle whose area is equal to one half the given area.
Let
angle.
ABC
If
be the given equilateral

lay off
tri-
&DFE
FD =/.
A ADFlies
y>
on the three sides the equal distances AD, BE, and CF, then
is equilateral.
we
To
a,
discover
the
length of
AD,
or
let
AB =
AD = x,
and
Then the relation of the areas gives
y1 =
~
we have
).
(l)
Since y in
opposite an angle of 60,
^ + (a _ ^2_ ^^ _ r
To
construct this expression draw the
altitude
CF.
On FC
lay
off
FH = -6
Through
H draw /A'
J. Cff,
then
AI =
or.
CHAPTER XVI
IMPOSSIBLE CONSTRUCTIONS
REGULAR POLYGONS*
Not every problem that may be General principles. proposed can be solved by means of ruler and compasses,
and
it
is
frequently of interest to determine
whether or not a certain problem can be solved in this manner. While in some cases the answer to this question
is
theorems make
exceedingly difficult, in others several general Pure it a comparatively simple matter.
geometric investigations, however, cannot decide the matter we have to employ the algebraic mode of attack
;
was discussed in the preceding paragraph. Whether or not an algebraic expression resulting from such analysis can be constructed appears from the folthat
lowing proposition All rational expressions, and all expressions which contain square roots only (or can be reduced to such fortri),
:
can be constructed.
No
others can be constructed.
Thus a\/2 = va(a^/2) can be constructed. But \Jabc cannot be constructed.
As
tions
the
unknown
it is
quantity
is
equation,
desirable to determine
roots,
i.e.,
always the root of an what kind of equa-
have such
roots that can be constructed.

Trans-
* See F. Klein's Famous Problems of Elementary Geometry. Ginn and Co., N. Y., 1897. lated by Beman and Smith. 8
857
258
roots of quadratic equations can
The
always be
con-
structed, ducible *
and with one
notable exception the roots of irre-
equations of higher degree cannot be constructed.
2* which can be constructed

in the following section.
This exception embraces certain equations of degree and which will be discussed
or the
Thus, the roots of irreducible equations of the third seventh degree cannot be constructed. The
application of these
theorems
will
be shown in the
next paragraph. Three famous problems.
The
of antiquity that cannot be solved and compasses are

:
three famous problems by means of ruler
1.
The duplication of
The
trisection
the cube (the so-called Delian
problem).
2.
3.
of an arbitrary angle.
the circle,
i.e.,
The quadrature of
the construction
of a square equivalent to a circle (or the finding of TT). I. The Delian problem leads to the equation
:
This equation
2 n , hence
its
is
irreducible f
and not of the degree

i.e.,
roots cannot be constructed,
the Delian
problem cannot be solved by ruler and compasses.

* An
equation
<t>(x)
is
called irreducible
if <t>(x)
cannot be resolved
into rational factors.

t If this
of the first degree,
equation were reducible, it would have at least one factor 2 = o and hence at least one rational root. But a?
;
cannot have fractional roots, since the coefficient of x? is unity it cannot 2 do not satisfy the equation, have integral roots, since the factors of i.e., the equation cannot have rational roots.
2.
259
The
of
J.
trisection of
:
as follows
is
If
B,
B is AB
if
an arbitrary angle may be treated the angle to be trisected, ABD or a

unity,
AC
(or
a) construct
AB,
then
a,
AD
tan
we can or x can
be constructed.
Obviously
a,
and
But
tan a
x.
13
a
(l)
if
it
Or
Hence
This equation is irreducible, for could be factored in its general form,

for
the left
member
could be factored
any numerical value of
a.
But
it
cannot be factored
for
many
values of
a, e.g.,
is
= 2*
and since
it
Hence
of
ruler
3.
the equation the degree 2 n the

,
irreducible,
is
not
problem cannot be solved by
and compasses.
The
impossibility of squaring the circle cannot be

it is
iemonstrated by the same simple method, since

mpossible
*
If
to
obtain
any
algebraic
equation
with
2,
the equation would be

'
O.
This equation cannot

_s
;
have fractional
roots, since the coefficient of
&
unity it cannot have integral roots, since no factor of 2 satisfies it. Hence the left member cannot contain a rational factor of the first
degree.
260
rational
coefficients
whose root
is
TT.*
Hence no at
and the reader
tempt
is
will
be made here to prove
this case,
Since TT is a tranagain referred to Klein's book.| scendental, and not simply an algebraic irrational number
it
cannot be constructed, even
if
we
admit, besides circle
and straight line, the use of other algebraic curves. All three problems, however can be effected by means
>
of instruments other than straightedge
The mechanical squaring of the of the so-called integraph has been accomplished rather
recently by a Russian engineer, Approximate constructions of
and compasses. circle by means
Abdant Abakanowicz.
IT.
Approximate
of these,
val-
ues of
TT,
however, can be found by means of ruler and
compasses only.
The
best
known
which was
given in 1685 by the Jesuit Kochanski, results in a value of IT equal to 3.141533. That is, the resulting error is much smaller than
average error due to unavoidable
inaccuracy
of
drawing.^
tion
is
The
and
construc:
as follows
Draw
diameter
AB
>
at
B the
and CE = 3 (OB\ Make tangent CD. then EA equals approximately the semicircumference.
ÔC=3O,
satisfy
any algebraic equations with number. t This proof for the impossibility of constructing if was first given by Lindeman in 1882. The demonstration. was greatly simplified by
rational coefficients
is
number which does not
called a transcendental
Hilbert (Mathematische Annalen, Vol. 43). t Still more exact is a construction given the American Math. Soc., January, 1907.
by G.
Peirce.
Bulletin of
26l
REGULAR POLYGONS
Division of a circumference. The problem of dividing a circumference into n equal parts, if n is prime^ was solved by the ancients for n = 2, 3, and 5 and no
;
progress was
years of age
made
until in
1796 Gauss
then nineteen
discovered the solution for
17,
and
demonstrated that the problem can be solved if n is of the form 2 k + i and prime, and that it can be solved in no other case.
Gauss' discovery aroused the greatest interest among the mathematicians of his time, not only because he
made an advance
in a subject that
had remained
station-
ary for two thousand years, but also because he showed the connection between a geometric problem and an n algebraic problem, viz., the equation xr = i.*
To make
2*.
2 k 4all
Hence
n
is
prime, k must be a power of 2, e.g., prime numbers that represent constructii
ble polygons
6, 7,
must be of the form

if
22
'
= n.
If /
= 5,
composite;
or
not
known whether
/=8, or greater than 8, it is not n is prime. Hence as far
* If z is a n i = o, complex number, then the roots of the equation s represented in the customary graphical manner, determine the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides.
Since unity
2
i,
is
a root of this equation,
we may divide
the left
number by
and obtain:
n-l
-2
-3
structed
Gauss showed that the roots of equations of this type can be coni is a power of 2 and n is prime. if n In fact these equations
roots, to
represent the exceptional cases of higher equations with constructive which reference was made in the section on the possibility of
solutions.
262
as known, all constructible polygons, the number ol whose sides is prime, are represented by the cases / = o,
i,
2, 3, 4.
The corresponding number

3, 5, 17,
of sides of the
polygons are:
257, 65537.
.,
Of
value.
this series
The
is
only the first two have any practical construction of the polygon of seventeen
already so complex that even with the most accurate methods of construction, the unavoidable insides
accuracies in drawing make the result valueless for The last two constructions have never practical ends.
been completed, although one mathematician devoted

life to the study of the last one. In regard to composite values of #, Gauss showed that a polygon can be constructed if n is equal to the
ten years of his
product of two or more different numbers of the series 3, 5, 17, 257, and 65537, but cannot be constructed for
any power of these numbers.

eighty-five parts,
To
divide a circle into
we
simply have
I
to solve the indeter-
minate equation
__x
^y
of this equation,
Since
x=
and
we have
i.e. 9
85~I 17' y = 10 are roots ^ = I ~ if
we many
construct
.
^ of the circumference
3x5x17
y
85'
by sub-
tracting \$ from f
we
Similarly to get a polygon of solve the equation

i
or 255 sides,
__
~~3
263
The
solution gives
Since an arc can be bisected, the construction can also be effected ifr the values of n obtained above are as 2 m of Thus we obtain
multiplied by any
power
2,
for n <; 20 constructible polygons

10, 12, 15,
1
if
= 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 8,
6, 17, 20,
if
while the regular polygon cannot

9,
be constructed
= 7,
u,
13, 14, 18, 19.
Concrete examples.
To show more
concretely the
gons and the solution of binomial equations,

sider
connection between the construction of regular polylet us con-
wo problems.*
i. To inscribe a regular pentagon in the unit circle. Let XX' be the axis of real numbers, YY' the axis of imaginary, O the unit
circle,
and
v ,
y? 2 ,
R R^ R
?>
&
the
vertices
of
the
required
pentagon.
Using the customary method

for
representing
imaginary
graphically, it can easily be seen that 2 are the roots of the equation
numbers
OR^ OR
o.
z6
Since
(i)
OR\ =
i
i,
we
divide (i)
by z
z4
and obtain
I
z* 4- z* -f z -f
is
o.
(2)
Equation (2)
a standard reciprocal equation, hence divide by z*9
knowledge of the graphic representation of imaginary numbers

topics
is
and kindred
necessary tor these examples.
See Advanced
Algebra, p. 376.
264
and
let
Thus we obtain
after a
few simplifications,
;r 2
-f
X-
I.
Therefore
=-ivi
Y
+ a) 2-t
But
or z
R2
+
'
l - can be
inter*
preted geometrically.
If
= ORv
=-=
s*
= OR?
shows
,
-X
But
graphic
addition
that the real part of ODy is equal to
OR3
or
Similarly
it
follows
that
if
O/?3 , then
OE=~.
2
Therefore the two values

of - represent the real parts
(the abscissas)
of the four
required points.
But
Hence we have the following

construction
:
On OX' lay off OF=\. On OY lay off OG = J..

a
determine the vertices of the required pentagon. * Advanced Algebra, p. 498. t For geometric constructions, expressions such as the above should not be simplified further.
E and D
circle, meeting XX
"
in
and
Z?.
From -F with radius FG draw The perpendiculars erected at
2.
265
To
In the same manner as
construct a regular polygon of seven sides. in the preceding example we obtain
*7
-i=o.
(i)
*8+,2 + *+I+I + l+J- =

Substituting
(2)
-f -,
we
arrive at the cubic 2
x*
If this equation
+ x-2 -
x-
o.
(3)
were reducible, it would have at least one factor of But (3) canthe first degree, and hence at least one rational root. not have fractional roots, since the coefficient of Xs is unity it cannot
;
have integral roots, since neither

is
nor
satisfy
it.
Hence
(3)
irreducible,
and
its
roots
and therefore the roots of (i) cannot be
constructed with ruler and compasses. It is therefore impossible to construct a regular heptagon with
ruler
and compasses.
Constructible angles.
The
discussions of the preced-
ing sections also answer the question as to the angles
which can be constructed by ruler and compasses only. Every central angle corresponding to one of the above
polygons can be constructed, and of course their sums and differences. Thus n = 9 produces an angle a = 40,
15,
an angle a
= 24,
etc.
It is
sometimes useful
to
know
that the smallest constructible angle that can be
is 3, and which contains degrees only is angle constructible if it is a multiple of 3, and not constructible if it is not a multiple of 3. Thus 27, 39, 54, and 87
expressed in an integral number of degrees
that hence an
can be constructed.
The
angle of 3
is
1, 25, 37, cannot be constructed. easily obtained by repeated bisection

1
of 24.
CHAPTER XVII
PURPOSE AND DIFFICULTIES OF THE STUDY

Peculiarities of solid
geometry.
Under the
condi-
tions that prevail in our secondary schools, and with the time usually allowed for the subject, it seems that solid
discipline for training the
geometry cannot be made a subject of discovery and a mind to quite the same extent
geometry. Exercises in solid geometry of demonstrative character are comparatively hard purely to construct and often more difficult to solve than
as plane
those in plane geometry the amount of book matter to be studied is relatively large, and the danger of making students learn by heart many proofs which they would
;
never discover themselves,

geometry.
is
greater than in
plane
the other hand, numerical examples of great simplicity can be given almost throughout the course. It is
easier to find practical applications of the theory, and algebraic work that gives to the student practice in the
On
various uses of a formula can be frequently introduced. Moreover, the study of solid geometry strengthens the
student's space imagination and his power to image space configurations, and it gives him an understanding
5or
drawings that represent spatial objects.

266

Altogether
it
267
seems that the
utilitarian
advantages are
advantages
In accordpart of
somewhat somewhat
ance with
greater, but the purely cultural
smaller, than in plane geometry.

this view,
textbooks devote a large
their space,
and schools a large part of their time, to mensuration and to theorems that, directly or indirectly,
justified
it
lead to mensuration.
be perfectly
in
Such an arrangement seems to under present conditions, and

to cut
many
cases
may be recommended
down
diffi-
the
number
of theorems even further, to omit the
cult ones that are not absolutely needed,
as, e.g.,
the
one about the
common
perpendicular of
two
lines,
and
not to insist upon a knowledge of the proofs of the most difficult ones that cannot be dispensed with, as,
e.g.,
the
theorem
of
the
equivalence
restrictions
of
triangular
pyramids.*
Difficulties.
With such
will
solid
geometry
It
not
offer
student.
more
require a little but it does not require study,
may
study of great difficulty to the more time and a little
the
more
intelligence
than does plane geometry.
One
difficulty,
however, against which
we must guard
and which we must overcome

inability of
solids.
ically,
at the very start is the
some students to understand diagrams of There are students who are able to reason log-
but
who cannot imagine
clearly the spatial forms

to demonstrate this
* Various attempts have been
made
theorem
by dividing the two pyramids gruent and thus to avoid limits.

this is impossible.
into parts which are respectively con-
Recently, however,
it
was proved that
268
which the diagrams represent.
There are two ways of
overcoming this difficulty, namely, the use of models and rational methods of drawing.
MODELS
The function of the model is to help the student in the beginning to an understanding of solid figures in
general, and to
make
clear to him, later on, difficult
drawings which otherwise he would not understand. should, however, not be used to supplant As soon as the student is able to underthe drawing.
The model
stand the drawings, the models should be discarded or reserved for the most difficult cases only. Otherwise
the student will lose one of the main benefits of the
study,
viz.,
the development of his space imagination
diagrams of solids. Matters difficult to depict, however, such as the regular polyedrons, the distinction between right and rectangular parallelepiped, etc., should be explained by the
use of models.*
and
of his faculty to understand
Kind
of
models needed.
As
a rule the simple, inex-
pensive model
its
made
of paper, strings, wire, etc., serves
purpose just as well as the most expensive one. triangular prism, cut out of a potato, and divided into
three equivalent pyramids
is
just as instructive as the of the propositions relat-
most expensive model.

*
Many
Another reason why models should be used only sparingly is that, as a rule, they cannot be shown to a large class as readily a* a blackboard diagram, but must be explained to the students individually or to small
groups of students, thus sacrificing a great deal of time.

ing to lines and planes
269
may be
illustrated
by a couple
is
of pencils, a book, a piece of paper.
The
only expensive piece that
is
quite useful
spherical blackboard, although even here tute, e.g., a football, may be found.
some
substi-
As
far as the
making
of
models by students
is
con-
cerned, there can be no doubt that in
many
cases the
student's understanding will be improved thereby. student who makes a regular icosaedron, or dodecae-
dron out of cardboard has undoubtedly a much clearer

notion of these solids than he had before.
On
the other hand,
it is
diture of a great deal of
doubtful whether the expenthe student's time for the
time
making of many or elaborate models is justified. The may be well invested as far as manual training is
it
concerned, but not as far as
relates to mathematical
reasoning. Especially the custom of exhibiting mathematical work and models made by students must
be strongly condemned. Such exhibitions not only raise an utterly wrong standard for the measurement
of the result of mathematical work, but they are often like many educational exhibits deceptive and mis-
leading.
DRAWINGS
Photos or drawings ?
-
Some
textbooks are equipped
with photos of models, which by their clearness almost equal models. But to the continuous use of such photo-
graphs the same objections may be raised as to the continuous use of models. Hence shaded diagrams, which
can be made very perspicuous and which the student
270
can redraw, are as a rule preferable. Photographs, however, will be very serviceable if used for a few
exceedingly
difficult
cases only.
It is
Perspective or projection?
impossible to give
full
within the limits of this textbook a

perspective and projection.*
explanation of
Perspective produces a picture as the eye sees the object, or as a photo depicts it, as illustrated by the
annexed perspective
of a cube.
All vertical edges
appear as vertical lines; all other parallel edges converge towards a point.
An
orthographic projection of an object

of the point
is
a picture
* We obtain an image
point E, by joining
E (the eye of the observer)
A upon the plane PP as viewed from to A Then a, the inter.
section of
AE and PP,
is
the required image. Thus abed is an image of the
pyramid
of
A BCD upon
the plane PP. If the eye (E) is at a finite distance, the drawing is a perspective; if at an infinite (or very large) distance, so that the rays EA, EB, EC, etc., are all parallel, it is called a projection. According as the rays EA, EB, etc., are perpendicular or oblique to PP, we obtain either an
is
orthographic or
an
oblique projection.

as the eye would see
it if it
271
if
were very
r
far off, or
the
object were comparatively small
(C
).
Parallel edges
have parallel projections, and the length of

parallel lines
tions.
is
Hence
proportional to their projecprojection allows a measure-
ment
of the three dimensions of a solid, a
problem that is very difficult for perspective. While a superficial view of this matter may lead to
preference of perspective for the drawings of solid geometry, the consensus of opinion of all who have
given serious thought to the subject is in favor of projections, principally on account of the following reasons: 1. The alleged superiority of perspective views
is imaginary, being views as the eye sees the object as the true views of small models seen by a student from a distance of about 10 feet differ so little from
projections that the eye would not notice the difference. 2. Perspective views are far more difficult to draw
than projections, and hence students as a rule draw exceedingly inferior pictures if they use perspective.
Usually they exaggerate the convergence of parallel lines. If students really constructed their diagrams in
geometry, this would not happen, but there is no time to study such constructions. The diagrams are
solid
simply drawn according to the artistic intuition of the student and according to his ability to redraw pictures
that he has seen.
3.
This
Lines that are parallel have parallel projections. is a great help for drawing, and also avoids con-
fusion in proofs.
272
4.
The
length of parallel lines
is
proportional to
their projections.
5.
Projections are used almost exclusively for tech-
nical
and engineering purposes.
To construct an oblique projecOblique projection. tion of a cube whose edge equals one inch, draw the
P
square
inch,
ABCD, whose
all
and draw
edge is one edges which are
A BCD, as AE, perpendicular to a certain assumed fraction equal

to face
(
or |) of one inch,
certain
and inclined a assumed angle a (about 30)
to the horizontal line
AB*
Oblique projections are easier to draw than orthographic projections, but give badly distorted views, while
the orthographic projections (see diagrams on pp. 274 and 276) are approximately views as the eye sees them.
For very complex drawings, oblique projection

to be preferred
;
is
for simple drawings, however, such as
a plane, a cube, a sphere, f orthographic projection is One should attempt to carry on orthosurely better.
the drawing method of the engraphic projection as far as possible, and textbooks should give, gineer as a rule, orthographic projections.
Use
of cross-section paper.
is
The drawing
projections
*
greatly facilitated
of oblique the use of ordinary by
paper
f
of a wire frame of a cube resting with one face upon the an oblique projection. The orthographic projection of a sphere is a circle, while the oblique
is
The shadow
projection
and the perspective are
ellipses.
273
rectangular cross-section paper, as illustrated by the annexed diagrams of a cube and an octaedron. (Here
we assume
a= tan"
|,
e= ^
simplify the exact construction of orthographic a cross-section paper, projection, the author has devised
at once
called trimetric paper, that enables the student to draw the orthographic projection of any line of
To
known
length, that
is
parallel to
little
one of the three
princi-
construction the projection pal of any line, straight or curved. Consequently an orthographic projection of any solid is easily obtained.*
axes,
and with
All diagrams of solids which are contained in this chapter are constructed by means of this trimetric
paper.
The
first
of the three diagrams
on the next
page represents a cube whose edge equals | of an inch This cube also explains to (J is the unit of the paper). a certain extent the use of the paper, in particular the lengths and directions of the three principal axes.
* For
ric
details the reader is referred to the author's article
on
trimet-
paper in the Engineering News,
New
York, April
6, 1911.
274
The second drawing

whose axes equal one
represents a regular octaedron (Draw the three axes (|) inch.
A A BB\ CO
',
equal to four units and bisecting each
other.)
275
diagram is the projection of a regular icosaedron whose axes, AA\ B&\ and CC equal two The edges aa bb and ^' are parallel to the inches.
third
9
}
]
The
',
* corresponding axes, and equal to |- of these axes, f i. In representing a plane Minor rules for drawing. draw a material plane that has thickness, as I and II.
While the two projections have equal from above, II from below.
outlines, I is seen
II
Lines in a plane are represented by projections which terminate within the boundaries of the plane, as
2.
AB. The
*
that
| is
is
intersect the plane projections of lines which

line
line.
an approximation of the ratio which the greater part of a

divided in extreme and
mean
ratio
bears to the entire
These approximations are convergents of the continued fraction:
For most purposes and At
\ (error
about
%)
is sufficient.
More
exact are f
only for students
ing projection the excellent German book on Solid
This outline of the construction of the regular icosaedron is intended who are familiar with the general principles of constructFor details of such constructions see of regular solids.
metric,
Band
I,
formation in
Holzmiiller, StereoGeometry This book is a regular treasury of inLeipzig, 1900. of regard to many of the most interesting questions
:
Solid Geometry.
2 76
extend beyond the boundaries of the plane, as CD. Lines perpendicular to plane I are perpendicular to the lower edge of the paper, as EF.
3.
Lines that cannot be seen omit or draw dotted.

i
(See No.
4.
and No.
4.)
Intersecting planes sometimes appear clearer if they lie so that their line of intersection, AS, does not extend to the margin of one of the planes.
5.
Lines near to the eye draw heavier than the
remoter ones.
277
6.
Point out the difference in the position of different

light is usually
planes by shading (the from the left side).

7.
assumed
to
come
To draw complex figures

first
angles draw
containing several diedral the corresponding plane figure and
then
make
two
each
side a plane.
to
Thus
adB'
draw
jacent supplementary diedral angles
and
their bisectors
first
_^_-_
O
____*
Then draw an
f
draw
the cor-
responding plane figure

arbitrary (short) line
etc,,
OABCDE,
f
equal and
OO and make AA BB' parallel to OO

,
f .
CC'9
278
8.
Some drawings become
of the surface of a table
by the introduction which the solid rests, and upon

clearer
the shadow cast upon the table.
In the annexed diagram

table line.
TT
is
supposed to be the
CHAPTER
Practical
XVIII
APPLIED PROBLEMS
and
scientific application of
elementary mathe-
greater part of all that is written and uttered today on the subject of the reform of mathematical teaching is connected with the introduction of
matics.
The
applied mathematics into our secondary school courses. It is claimed that real problems relating to daily life or
to technical
and
scientific
matters will redeem mathe-
matical study in secondary schools from its inefficiency. The failure of the mathematical instruction to arouse
and
to hold the interest of the students, the absolute
forgetting of all that has been studied, and the inability of pupils to apply what is known, are said to be due, solely or principally, to the fact that the pupil does not
see any practical value in either algebra or geometry. While it is somewhat unfortunate that nearly all reto the neglect of other
formers concentrate their efforts upon this one point, more important points, it cannot
this
it
be denied that
vided
is
confined to
tendency in itself is a good one, proits proper limits. Mathematics
its very existence to its applications, and it would never be taught in a school if it were a mere collection of symbols that are logically coherent, but with no re-
owes
lation
whatsoever to the real world.

279
There
are,
how-
280
degrees to which these ideas may be carried, and the extreme ends of this scale of views are so far apart that the practical results will be utterly
ever, different
different according as
we accept
the moderate or the
extreme view of
this
movement.
Elementary mathematics has not very many genuine applications, but still it has some.
Moderate views.
The study of these applications will undoubtedly increase the interest in the subject frequently it will also lead to a better understanding of the subject and occa;
sionally
it
may
be of practical value to some student.
On the
other hand,
we must not
forget that the principal
value of mathematical study lies in the mental training it affords, and hence we should not give up any of the essentials of the subject because they have no immediate applications.
We must not, in
order to obtain practi-
cal value, deprive the subject of its peculiar character
But other things being of being a subject of reasoning. equal, that topic deserves preference that can be applied
or that vti\\ûltimately lead to applications. Other things being equal, the practical problem deserves precedence
over the purely academic problem. Thus we shall not give up the theory of exponents, or the analysis of geometric problems, simply because they
have no immediate practical value.

solutely essential for the
But when we have

which
is
to choose between several topics, each of
not ab-
guided by
their applicability
whole theory, we should be and should not merely

well dispense with
follow tradition.
Thus we may very
some
of the complex "cases" of factoring, and study
APPLIED PROBLEMS
281
Instead graphical methods, which have a greater practi* cal value than any other chapter of elementary mathematics.
We may
give up the finding of the H. C. F. by
the Euclidean method, and introduce instead proportion, which is necessary in physics and geometry. Instead
of going very deeply into goniometry, it would be better to devote our time to the trigonometric methods for find-
ing
heights
and distances. formed
Instead of
at
substituting
let
numbers
etc., etc.
in expressions
random,
us study
numerical substitution in formulae of practical value,
The extreme view sees the chief value of mathematical instruction in its utility, and considers its disciplinary
value as quite small. The present inefficiency of mathematical instruction is said to be due to the very nature
of pure mathematics, which cannot be understood fully
by young students, and which cannot possibly interest them. Only topics the practical value of which is apparent are said to interest young people, and hence it is proposed to make the applied problem the principal, if
not the only, object of instruction. Purely academic problems and theorems are to be admitted only as far as
they are absolutely necessary for the solution of practical problems.
The only criterion by which any particular problem or theory is judged is its applicability. Thus the prob" To construct a lem, triangle, having given the perimone angle, and the altitude from the vertex of the " given angle," is considered poor, because of its having
eter,
at best
remote connection with any uses of geometry
282
No within reach of the ordinary high school pupil." * other reason for using the above problem is therefore
admitted
;
there
is
only one,
viz., its applicability.
Reasons against making mathematics a utilitarian subject. Obviously the matter of applying problems
and among the many reasons that may be given against the extreme views stated in the preceding paragraph, the following may be mentioned
can be carried too
far,
:
1.
The assumption
that students cannot successfully
study pure mathematics, and never take any interest in purely academic problems and theorems, is erroneous.
Students of average
ability,
by proper methods under

interest in the subject.
properly prepared, taught favorable conditions, not
only understand mathematics easily, but take great That the conditions in many
schools are such that good teaching is almost impossible, make us attempt to change these conditions, but
should
not reject one of the best and most interesting subjects. 2. If all secondary school mathematics had genuine applications, the proposed changes would not so much
interfere witfi the teaching of the essentials of
geometry
and algebra.
But the
field of
application of these sub-
jects is limited,
and a great many of the so-called appliare not genuine applications. To replace in a cations
time-honored algebraic problem the number of Henry's marbles by the height of Chimborazo, or A's age by the
number
of babies born annually in Chicago, does not
lead to a genuine application of algebra, since nobody

* Provisional Report of the National Committee of Fifteen on Geometry Syllabus, School Science and Mathematics,
May,
zgii.
APPLIED PROBLEMS
283
would find the height of Chimborazo or the number of babies born in Chicago by such a method.* Genuine applications of algebra may often be taken
from physics, but unfortunately the average pupil's
knowledge of physics is so small that an extensive use of such problems involves as a rule the teaching of
physics by the teacher of algebra. Still more restricted is the field of true application in geometry. Examples relating to Gothic windows and
parquet floors are sometimes interesting, but they relate only to a very small fraction of the geometry, and they
are rarely genuine, since the draftsman, the glazier, or the carpenter who has to deal with these forms will as
a rule solve
all
problems involved empirically.
Thus, while the applied problem does increase the interest, it is too limited in scope to be made the fundamental principle of the teaching of mathematics.
While a certain proportion of applied work will stimulate the interest, an accumulation of a large num3.
in the end.
ber of applied theorems of a similar kind proves tiresome To get a few statistical facts is interest-
ing; to hear of endless numbers of such facts is like few exreading the World's statistical almanac. to parquet floors are attractive, but amples relating
pages of them void of

4.
interest.
its
To
is
put the utility of mathematics above
culture
value
decidedly based upon a misconception of the educational value of the subject.

* In addition, on account of the large numbers involved, arithmetical appear that are utterly foreign to our purpose.
difficulties
284
5.
To make
the applicability of a problem or other
topic the only criterion by which to judge it means utterly to ignore other reasons that exist for introduc-
ing such matters. problem is given to illustrate a new idea, a new method, and that problem which best
illustrates these
methods
is
the best.
illustrate the analysis of
problems,
If we wish to we may very well
problem of constructing a triangle having given the perimeter, one angle, and one altitude, to which reference was made in the preceding section. It
use the
is
certainly better than a
problem that does not teach
analysis,
should relate to " baby ribbons," "6-inch bias ruffles,"* and other " practical matters."
even
if
it
a practical subject with little regard to its disciplinary value, it will not only lose a great deal of its beauty and dignity, but it will be very difficult to defend the teaching of the subject
6.
If
we make mathematics
against the numerous attacks of its enemies, and its early disappearance from the curricula of our schools
will not be unlikely.
Conclusion.
Practical
problems, introduced ration-
essentials of geometry ally and algebra, will improve the teaching of mathematics. But we must not expect too much from this movement,
and without destroying the
for
it is
not a panacea that will cure

to the cause.
all ills.
There
is
even a danger that a fanatical pushing of this idea
may
do serious harm
Sources of applied problems.
In
many textbooks and

a large
magazine
articles there
may be found
number
* These terms are found in some recent textbooks.
APPLIED PROBLEMS
285
of practical problems, relating to engineering, physics,
commercial life, etc. Bibliographies relating to such sources are found in School Science and Mathematics,
Vol.
VIII and Vol. XL* Some most numerous examples belong

i.
of the
most useful and

:
to the following types
Geometric constructions.
to
relate
architectural
Most applied problems forms and ornamental designs

floors, linoleums,
such as found in parquet

dows,
etc.
Gothic win-
Thus
the
first
of the
annexed diagrams
requires the drawing of three equilateral gothic arches, and the construction of a circle touching these arches
,*
the second diagram contains several similar problems.
Similarly it construct the
may be
required to annexed linoleum
pattern so that the black parts
may
be squares, and the white parts

regular octagons, etc.
* Vol. VIII, No.
Vol.
May,
8, November, 1908, pp. 641-644; 191 1, pp. 458-460 (Report of Fifteen).
XI, No.
$,
286
TEACHING OP MATHEMATICS
Maps may also be used to applied constructions. We may require the construction of the site of a schoolequidistant from three towns A, B, and C, or the location of a railway station to be equidistant
house that
is
from two towns
A and
B.
fields,
Problems of subdividing areas, such as

also to this class of applied problems.
2.
belong
The forms considered Geometric computations. the preceding class give rise to many numerical problems, e.g., the finding of the edge of the octagon in the linoleum pattern, the calculation of the radius and
in
circumference of the circle in the gothic window. large number of exercises can be based upon the calculation of areas
and volumes of forms met
in engineering
and architecture, as pipes, boilers, tanks, arches, etc. Problems relating to heights and distances similar
to
those given in trigonometry can be solved if the given angles are 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 135, and 150. and their (Theoretically if they are multiples of 3
halves,
quarters,
etc.)
Thus the simplest mode
of
finding a distance would be by means of an equilateral triangle obtained by measuring two angles equal to 60.
Then we may consider

angle, equal to
right triangles, containing one

etc.
30, or 45,
We may
introduce
angles of elevation and depression, angular distances, nautical notions, precisely as in trigonometry, although
the more complex examples of this kind will prove too difficult for the average student.
Thus we may ask
for the height of a tower standing

if
on a horizontal plane,
at a certain point
on the plane
APPLIED PROBLEMS
the angle of elevation of the top of the tower at a point 80 feet nearer the angle is 45.
3.
2J
is
30, and
Algebraic problems are in general better known, in most textbooks of algebra. Physical and commercial problems form one source, the old-fashioned
and found
marble problems clothed with a new garb by

data furnish another.
fertile in
statistical
Graphic methods are particularly
producing applied problems.*

XIX,
p. 299,
* See also Chap.
and Chap. XX,
p. 335.
CHAPTER XIX
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
The educational value
geometry. courses in
of
The
selection of
algebra as compared witfc the subject matter for
elementary algebra
upon the educational advantages
must largely depend of the subject, which
are not absolutely identical with those of geometry. Algebra requires the same accuracy of thinking, and the same, or possibly greater, accuracy of detail than
be graded as perfectly, and its introductory chapters may be made even simpler than
geometry.
It
may
those of geometry. The definiteness of the task given to the student, the certainty of the results, and the applicability of many of its topics to scientific or other
problems are- precisely the same as in geometry. On the other hand, algebra does not require as much
reasoning, and this reasoning is not always of the same high order as geometry.* The amount of information
some
cannot be reduced quite as much as in geometry, and topics in algebra require a certain amount of mechanical
drill.
Hence ingenuity and

is
originality of
r61e,
thinking do not play quite the same
and the
knowledge
of facts
*
somewhat more important than

II, p. 23.
Compare Chap.
288

in
289
Moreover, algebra lends itself rather Students readily to a purely mechanical treatment. may add exponents, transpose terms, and perform other
geometry.
manipulations without having a clear notion of the meaning of these operations, and the symbols involved.
Thus, while possessing most of the advantages of other mathematical branches, algebra has certain drawbacks, and the courses of study should be so arranged as to eliminate or to minimize these disadvantages.
When
in the
should algebra be studied?
In most schools
United States algebra is studied before geomebut lately this plan has been frequently assailed try,* sometimes it has even been considered one of the chief
;
causes of the inefficiency of mathematical teaching.
While some reformers wish to place geometry before algebra, most of them advocate a simultaneous teaching of the two subjects.! The feasibility of the first plan under certain condiproved by the experience of a number of schools in various countries. In regard to the second plan, it
tions is
should be emphasized that it does not mean the teaching of 3 hours of algebra and 2 hours of geometry during
two years of high school, but a complete merging of the two subjects. Any new method, whether it
the
first
*
year.
f
Usually algebra during the ninth, geometry during the tenth, school
The
three most widely advocated reforms of mathematical study
are:
1. 2.
The Use of Laboratory Methods. The Teaching of Applied Problems.

Simultaneous Teaching of Algebra and Geometry.
3.
2QO
relates to
geometry or algebra, should, according to this plan, be studied whenever the necessity for it arises, and not before. Thus, square roots should be taught in
connection with the Pythagorean theorem, similar triAll algebraic facts should angles with proportion, etc.
as far as possible be illustrated geometrically, and vice
versa.
This scheme, which has been advocated not only in the United States, but also in other countries, especially
in Italy
and Germany, has undoubtedly a number of adIt may arouse more interest than the cusvantages.
it
tomary mode,
may
at
some stages
of the
work show
the student the necessity of studying certain topics, it may train the student better to apply his knowledge, and
may prevent the rapid forgetting of time when geometry alone is studied.
it
algebra during the
On the other hand, there are weighty reasons against the introduction of simultaneous teaching of algebra and geometry in every school. First of all, such a complete
merging of the two subjects may not be at all THe courses of study of this new type, which possible.
still
have been proposed, are
in the
experimental stage,
that pretend
and, as a rule, lack detail.
The textbooks
to carry out this idea, usually
do the merging for one or
topics, otherwise they simply alternate between alMoreover, there exist gebraic and geometric topics.*
two
* Of
course, there can be
of introducing algebraic illustrations into
whenever feasible. cedure and complete merging.
no difference of opinion about the wisdom geometry, and vice versa, But there is a wide difference between such a pro-
2QI
a large number of high schools in which the first year students are not capable of attacking geometry as successfully as algebra.
modes
of study, such students find the transition
Trained principally in mechanical from
arithmetic to geometry too difficult, while they attack alwhich resembles arithmetic gebra quite successfully. Hence it seems doubtful whether the simultaneous
teaching of algebra and geometry would produce such a radical improvement as the advocates of this plan claim. Still the plan is worth trying, and schools that
are in a position to make experiments should give this matter a thorough and impartial trial.
WHAT ALGEBRA SHOULD

General
BE STUDIED
be
remarks.
There
can
no
discussion
about the adoption of a large number of topics in courses in elementary algebra namely, of all those which are
;
absolutely needed for further work.

ever, a
There
are,
how-
number
of other topics that
may be
dispensed
with, and, in regard to these, until a
few years ago
there was no accepted criterion for introduction other
than tradition.*
Lately, however, there is noticeable an almost universal tendency to eliminate traditional subjects and to put in their place those having pedagogical or
* In some of these cases it was claimed that future applications depended upon them, but these applications were as superfluous as the Thus the teaching of certain complex cases in factororiginal methods. ing was defended because the solution of certain equations depended upon them, but a closer inquiry showed that the applications were as superfluous as the factoring method.
2Q2
practical value.
The general tendency of these proposed changes may be briefly characterized as follows 1. Reduction of all information to a minimum:
:
elimination of
all
superfluous,
abstract,
and merely
that
technical matter.
2.
Emphasis on
all
algebraic
topics
require
original thinking.
3.
Emphasis on
in
all
topics
that are
frequently ap-
plied
geometry,
etc.
physics, engineering, commercial
problems, Reduction of the amount of purely formal work. Algebra cannot be mastered without the study of a number of formal operations and without acquiring a
In order to attack of manipulative skill. the more advanced chapters of algebra, successfully the student has to be familiar with the four fundacertain
amount
mental operations;
in factoring,
in solving
he has to possess a certain skill But, on the equations, etc.

there
other hand, these matters can be, and have been, carried
too
far.
Until
recently
was a tendency
of
to
overemphasize and to increase
manipulative phase from year to year. The authors of textbooks vied with each other in their attempts to
it
this
the work,
put everything into their books be taught.*
that
possibly could
The cause
In the
first
for
this
tendency was a twofold one.
place, algebra
was taught largely for the
* Some authors stated with great self-satisfaction in their prefaces that they had increased the number of cases, e.g., added a fourteenth case
of factoring to the thirteen
commonly
taught.

sake
of
it
293
preparing
students
for
examinations,
and
was attempted to make, as far as possible, every example a special case of a memorized method,
hence
thus reducing the study almost to a mechanical application of memorized rules. Second, it was claimed
study of such formal methods, as, for the extraction of the cube root of a polynoinstance, mial, possessed great disciplinary value, and hence that
that
the
the acquirement of manipulative skill should be the aim, or at least one of the principal aims, of algebraic study.
Any
one, however,
who
is
familiar with our schools
knows that these formal matters are studied in a way that makes their disciplinary value small. Thus, even
if
the teacher should at
first
emphasize the reasoning
that underlies the extraction of a cube root of a polynomial, very soon the students will perform this manipulation in
a purely mechanical manner.
They simply
the process by heart, and are utterly unable to reconstruct the same, if they should forget it. Moreover, there is so much purely formal work in algebra
know
reduction by one third or one half will not sensibly diminish the educational benefits that may be derived
that
its
from
it.
Fortunately the mathematical public commences to recognize the uselessness of overemphasizing the study
of
mere manipulative work.
In the United States,* in
* The requirements of the College Entrance Examination Board which are based upon a committee report of the American Mathematical Society of the year 1902
methods.
in the
eliminate several of the time-honored Later reports, essays, and textbooks show a marked tendency
direction.
same
2Q4
France, in Germany, in England, there are marked tend, encies to reduce the purely technical side of algebraic
study.
impossible to make rules in this respect that fit every kind of school, but among the topics that may be omitted and in many cases should be omitted may
It is
be mentioned
1.
Complex cases
of the removal of parentheses.

is
(One
2.
parenthesis within another

Multiplication and
sufficient.)
division of
is first
powers with
literal
exponents (when this topic

3.
studied).
Complex
cases of multiplication and division of
polynomials by polynomials. 4. The Euclidean method for finding the H. C. F. In elementary algebra this method is needed only for But no the reduction of a fraction to lowest terms.
practical
example leads
to fractions
whose terms are
of the third or fourth degree.

5.
The analogous method
for L. C.
M.
is
needed only
for the addition of fractions, but fractions
whose de-
nominators are cubic functions have no value in ele-
mentary algebra.
6.
The
*
addition of fractions with quadratic or cubic
denominators.
7.
8.
The
greater part of factoring.

of comparison for solving simultane-
Complicated complex fractions.
9.
The method
ous linear equations,

*
Topics marked by an asterisk
(*1 will
be discussed in detail in Chap*
terXX.

fo.
295
Cubes and higher powers of polynomials.
11.
12.
Cube Cube
roots of polynomials.
roots of numbers.
13.
Difficult simultaneous quadratics, especially those
solved by devices which the student cannot discover
himself
14.
(e.g.,
symmetric equations).
all
Nearly
so-called short cuts
and special devices.
15. The greater part of the theory of algebra. In the more advanced chapters we may omit:
1 6.
Recurring
series.
17.
1
The
greater part of inequalities.
8.
Sturm's Theorem.
Multiple roots. The reduction of the formal work in algebra must not, however, be interpreted as involving a less thor19.
ough study of the topics that are

contrary.
retained.
Rather the
The fundamental
algebraic operations should
be studied thoroughly and should be made familiar to the student by frequent repetition. Mathematics is a
simple study for one
until
who never
attacks a
new
topic
he
is
thoroughly familiar with the preceding stages
ef the work, while lack of this familiarity progress very difficult, if not impossible.
makes further
All parts of the theory which Reduction of theory. are beyond the comprehension of the student or which
are logically unsound should be omitted. Every practical teacher knows how few students understand
and appreciate the more

as
difficult parts of
the theory,
laws relating to proofs Even matters negative or fractional exponents, etc.

the
of
the
fundamental
296
as simple as the
f?
in the textbooks " " for the law of are logically unsound, as the proof signs in multiplication, and the proofs of the binomial
comprehended by the pupils. Moreover, some of the proofs offered
(jp\
multiplication
+
and division of frao

)
= -^.,
oa
and Y
o
~=^ a be
are usually not fully
theorem for negative or fractional exponents. Elimination of short cuts and special devices.
able student
tions of
is
One
of the most interesting problems for the exceptionally
the discovery of simple and short soluproblems which, treated by the general methods,
solutions. It would be very the regular method the equation by
T A
>**
lead to lengthy or
difficult to solve
>* *
awkward
o ^ __ $
2
* *
4
f
ji
* *
t
!)
~ X
~ X
y X
~ X
O
fi
A series of special devices,

simple solution.
If
however, can effect a very
we
represent each fraction as a mixed number,
x
the equation
is
easily reduced to
xz
ber.
;r
2
iii]
x
3
6
simplify each
Instead of clearing the equations of fractions, Thus we obtain
we
mem*
-5;r+6
Or
Therefore
x* -
=r 5 x + 6 x = 4.
jr 2
1 1
ii
x+ x -f
30
30.
297
an example of a very simple and obvious device, but many of those used in elementary algebra are far more complex, and their use is Of such a kind are the subjustified only by the result.
is
The preceding method
stitutions
used sometimes in the solution of simultaneous

;
equations
as the substitution
vy, or
x=
A good
x=u
+ v, y = u
is
z>,
etc.
example of a short cut
the following transformation of
a radical into an infinite continued fraction.

applied to the finding of
The
regular
method
V22
is
as follows
__
\/22+4__
_.
V/22
i
-t-
2
,
The short cut, however, gives the integral number of A) and the successive denominators (C) as follows:
(first
valtw
The first value of A is the largest integer contained in V22, *.*., 4. A 2 = 6. Any value of C equals the The first value of B equals 22
whole number contained
in
4-
\/22
B
:
The
values of
and
B contained in every line except the first are

?n-A n
obtained by means of the formulae
The
period closes as soon as
B=
I.*
Such devices and short cuts
exist in large
numbers.
of one
They
havef a certain value,
when many examples
type have to be solved for a practical purpose. It is also convenient for the teacher to be acquainted with
such methods, but for the pupil they are practically

valueless.
The
student's
memory
is
unduly taxed, and he
is in
many
cases led to a
more mechanical treatment
of the
The exceptional student who is able to discover such short cuts for himself will derive pleasure
subject.
*The symmetries
in the
above table make
it
possible to reduce the
work to the calculation
of one half of the table.
299
and mental benefit from the discovery of the method, but not from the knowledge of the same.
in schools, usually in the student pass more readily some examination, without consideration of the pedagogic harm
Such methods are introduced
order to
make
done by such an introduction. Emphasize topics that cultivate the reasoning power.
is
pointed out in the beginning of this chapter, there a certain danger that the study of elementary algebra may become too mechanical. Hence we should attempt
As
encourage reasoning, and those topics that require original thinking. emphasize The most important of these is undoubtedly the reading problem, but almost any other topic gives some opporto treat every topic so as to to
The omission of tunity to make the students think. " " will also give the student an opportunity some cases
to discover
by means of
his
own
of problems that are usually solved
ingenuity the solutions by a method. This
may be done
in factoring,
and
in the solution of simul-
taneous quadratics.
While large portions of the old-fashioned curriculum in algebra were deterEmphasize applicable
topics.
in
mined without any guiding principle, most reformers America and Europe propose in all doubtful cases,
to
make
its
of
the applicability of a topic the chief criterion importance. If this principle is not carried so
it certainly deserves approval. the topics which thus deserve special em:
far as to sacrifice the serious study of algebra to applications of doubtful value,
Among
phasis
may be mentioned
30O
1.
Numerical substitution.
Equations and problems.
Graphs.
Proportion.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Logarithms.
All subjects that lead to the idea of functionality. The idea of functionality, which is so much empha6.
sized
attention
by European writers, has not received the same in the United States, partly because here
graphic methods have only quite recently been adopted. General maxims for teaching algebra. While the
preceding discussion relates principally to the curriculum as it finds expression in the textbooks, it has of course
a bearing also upon the work of the teacher in the classroom. The principles following from the preceding sections, and a few others, may be summarized as follows:
1.
Emphasize Emphasize
all
parts of the
work requiring
original
thinking.
2.
all
topics that can be applied, or that
lead indirectly to applications;
but do not sacrifice the
true study of algebra to sham applications. Eliminate as far as possible all merely technical 3.
matter that
is
not necessary for more advanced work.
Omit
4.
all
short cuts and special devices.

all
Omit
theory which
is
beyond the comprehenlogically unsound.

If
al-
sion of the pupils, or which
is
necessary, infer such matters
from particular cases,
though
then be necessary to point out to the students that an assumption has been made.
it
will

5. drill,
By repetition and a certain amount of practical make familiar to the student methods which are of
fundamental importance or which are frequently applied.

6.
far as possible every general
Emphasize the inductive method. Introduce as method by concrete, i.e.

9
Thus before considering a m x a*, numerical, examples. 6 8 find 2 2 before discovering the relations of the roots
;
of a
xn 4- a^n ~ l +
tf n
= o,
find the
same
relation for
7. Examples that are not of fundamental importance should as far as possible be solved by reasoning and not by memorized methods.
CHAPTER XX
INTRODUCTORY SUBJECTS
The method formerly The first lessons in algebra. so prevalent, of beginning algebra with a long list of
definitions
which had
To-day
to
be memorized,
is
fortunately
disappearing.
it is
offer to the students in the first lessons
quite generally attempted to a topic that
rouses their interest and that
makes them
think, as, e.g.
applied problems or negative numbers. Simple problems undoubtedly form a good starting topic, although we
should bear in mind that this subject is taught here solely for the purpose of justifying the use of letters in place of numbers, and hence we should restrict the work to
Equally as good a start may be made with negative numbers, a topic that on account of its novelty and simplicity interests students
fairly simple examples.
greatly.
defined as
is
Negative numbers. Negative numbers are usually numbers smaller than zero, and this definition
quite satisfactory from the pedagogical viewpoint, For the term although logically it is objectionable. " smaller than " is usually defined by the statement b is negative. a is smaller than b, if a Hence the
:
term "negative"
in turn rests
is
upon
"
based upon "smaller than," which negative,'* an obvious circle.

302
303
Students have no difficulty in grasping the concept of negative number if the subject is presented concretely on the basis of practical examples. While it is impossible to diminish
of 5
it
may
;
a group of 5 objects by 7, a temperature decrease 7. If we deal with cardinal numbers,
impossible to subtract a greater number from a smaller but when a number is used for measurement,
is
and the quantities considered allow measurement

opposite
directions,
in
subtraction
is
always
loss,
possible.
latitude,
Quantities of this kind are:

longitude, years A.D. and years
gain and
B.C.,
upward and down-
ward motion, opposing forces, temperature, etc. The most important illustration for further work is the number scale, represented in the annexed diagram.
i t
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-H
+2
t3
+* +
+6
Practice with a
will not
number
of examples of
these types
understanding number, but will also enable him to perform addition of any two numbers, the subtraction of a positive number from any number, etc., without having studied the laws upon which these examples are based.
of negative
only give to the student a clear
introduction of a special symbol for negative number, as "4, in order to discriminate between the sign
of
The
quality
and the sign
of
operation, can hardly be
recommended.
is
The
distinction
between the two signs

it is
somewhat
artificial,
and
in
some instances
quite
difficult to
with.
decide which kind of symbol we have to deal Students find this distinction rather difficult and
304
tedious,
and hardly any of the teachers or textbooks that emphasize this matter in the beginning retain it in more advanced work.
Numerical substitutions.
Numerical substitution
is
one of the most important topics of beginners' algebra. It is the natural link between arithmetic and algebra
and insures understanding of algebraic symbols in more advanced work. A student unable to evaluate an algebraic expression for given values of the letters involved
tions of algebra.
cannot possibly possess an understanding of the operaOn the other hand a student who has
aside from the
learned numerical substitution only has
acquired an understanding of the purely algebraic gain and of the use of formulae, a knowledge which meaning
has a distinct practical value. Numerical substitution should not only be practiced in the beginning, but be applied throughout the course,
whenever
possible.
Students rather easily lose sight of
the true meaning of symbols, and make mistakes which they would not make if they realized that these letters
represent numbers.*
Hence
J
if
a student says
if
-+i = 2 a a a
of a
let
him
find
and
he then should answer
f,
request
the
stu-
sum
* "
of \ of a dollar
and
dollar.
Many
-"
8
Pupils say
+\b
a+b
*-r
who would
never say
-+ 3
5
(Lodge.)
Unfortunately, however, there are high school students
who do
say

dents
others
305
*
who
say J
^t! = i-^-i,
X
I
would not say IOO+

100
,
= 2,
I
who say
etc.
~Va 2
+ ^2 = +
<z
would not say

is
VQ 4-
as 3 -f i,
Numerical substitution
thus the best
means
of illustrating emphatically to the students the absurdities of some of their mistakes.
Sometimes, however, the student answers the algebraic question correctly, but makes mistakes when nua student
Thus merical examples of the same type are proposed. who knows that a* x a* = a"', may say 2 8 x 2*
=4
7
.
Such
errors
show
that
the pupil
has no true
insight into the
meaning
of the algebraic symbols
which
he uses;
cally
in other words,
he
is
manipulating mechani-
symbols which he does not understand. Numerical substitution examples are so important that their practice can hardly be overdone. If the text-
book should not contain enough material, the teacher can readily construct examples, whose answers are obvious to him, by using a formula which at this stage of the work is unknown to the pupil. Thus each pupil may substitute different numbers in the expression # 8 3 a*b + 3 alP IP, and the teacher can check the It is results instantly since the answer equals (a )*.
a very simple matter to construct formulae of this type ; a few instances are the following :
cfi
- 8 a*b + 24 aW - 32 *#> +
16
=(*- 2
'
<*
306
student should also practice here the substituSuch formulae
The
tion
of numerical values in formulae.
taken from physics, geometry, or commercial branches. Some very simple formulae may also be
may be
constructed by the pupil, e.g., a formula for the total area of the walls of a room whose dimensions are given.
Checks.
Numerical
substitution
forms
the
most
widely used and the most convenient means for verifyResults of ing the answers to algebraic examples.
algebraic manipulations cannot be correct unless questions
and answers give equal

;
results for all numerical
values of the letters involved and on the other hand, if numerical substitution results in equal values of question
and answer, the

a rule,
As
probably correct.* we select small numbers, but avoid substilatter is
tutions that lead to forms like

letters involved
test,
-or
o
4.
If
we make
all
equal to unity, we often obtain a very but since all powers of unity are equal, this simple method does not check the exponents. Thus to check
the multiplication
(2 a*
- 3 ab -
2 P}(2 a
3 B)
we
let
and obtain
=4 a3 - 12 a*b+ $aP+6b\ a = & = i, = + 3.

i
Hence the
*
multiplication
is
probably correct.
no absolute
test.
single numerical substitution is
To make
it
such several substitutions are necessary, and their number depends upon the nature of the example. Thus if only one letter is involved and the
= $ (x) is of the n th degree, identity p(x) constitute an absolute test.
numerical substitutions
307
indicate
Numerical
a
substitution
does
not
merely
whether or not a result
wrong answer,
also
is correct, but it may, in case of be used to locate the error, as
illustrated
by the following
fallacy
Check : Let
x =/ =
2
2.
Let
x=y.
= 2.
Then
and
/.
17*=
17
i/j,
34=3426
\ly.
13^=137.
x
i3:r= \T y
= 26. 8 = 8.
= 0.
Or,
ijx- 177 = 13* 137. i7O-/) = \^(x-y\

'
O=O.
I7=i3.
17=13.
Hence the
is
step from the line before the last to the last
erroneous.
A
may
few other methods of verifying algebraic results be briefly mentioned. Any operation may be
Thus, subtraction
checked by the inverse one.

verified
may be
by
addition, multiplication
by
division, factoring
by
multiplication, etc.
fact that the products, quotients, powers, roots
The
of homogeneous expressions are again homogeneous, and the corresponding fact for symmetric expressions, frequently may be used for checks.
Equations are checked by substituting the roots in both members of the given equation or equations.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

Addition.
tive,
The problem
of adding positive
or
negative and
negative,
and neganumbers involves a
308
widening of the definition of addition. Hence the law of addition is really a definition, and not a theorem.
For secondary school purposes it is perfectly legitimate to derive this law from a number of concrete examples, although this is of course no scientific
method.*
Subtraction.
of addition, or
Scientifically subtraction is the inverse
we may
define
b by the equation:
(a-t)+t = a.\
To
the
the taking
things,
young student, however, subtracting means away of certain things from a group of
it
and hence
is
advisable to
start
from
this
notion and later on lead over to the scientific definition.
The
taking away of positive numbers from others, that are either positive or negative, is readily explained by
gain and loss, northerly and southerly motion, the geoTo illusmetric illustration of the number-scale, etc.
trate the subtraction of negative
(
numbers, for instance

5
I,
5)
3),
represent
5
I,
by writing
I,
negative units,
i.e.,
I,
I,
and request the pupil
to take
away (with the
eraser)
3,
three negative units.

2.
The
r(- 5)-(-3)= is 2.
result is obviously
2,
Similarly the total value of the following

*
numbers
Compare the Law
of
No
Exception, p. 312.
f All inverse operations can be
denned by equations,
e.g.:
Division:
(fyb
a.
Evolution: ($te)*
a.
309
Taking away
2,
the result
is 4,
or
It should be pointed cut to Signs of aggregation. the pupil that the first examples relating to the removal of parentheses are merely additions and subtractions in a
new form.
Whether we
subtract 3 #
from 6 a
2 b
by placing the former under the latter, or by writing (6a + 2 b) (3 a 5 b\ is simply a matter of arrangement.
a waste of time to solve very complex examples of this type. One parenthesis within another is all the
It is
student of elementary algebra will
have
to
use in
physics, geometry, or trigonometry. Whether we should commence the removal of parentheses from within or
from without
The
a question of no great importance. latter does not necessitate as many changes of sign
is
as the former, but leads
more
readily to mistakes.
The
study of short cuts for the
simultaneous removal of
several parentheses has no value whatsoever.
MULTIPLICATION
Rule
of a
of signs for multiplication.
The
multiplication
negative number by a
positive
integer follows
directly
from the
definition
which considers such a mul-
310
tiplication
a
repeated addition. This definition, however, becomes meaningless for a negative multiplier, for, to add a number 7 times is just as meaningless as to
read a book
made
in
Hence, the attempts frequently the older textbooks to prove that a x b = ab,
7 times.
without defining the multiplication by a negative multiproof of this kind is plier, were necessarily futile.
the following: Since
and
= 12,* ab = ba, 3x(-4) = (-4)x3 =

(~ 4)x
3
-12,
i.e., to multiply by a negative number, multiply by its But absolute value, and change the sign of the result.
the terms "positive" and "negative" are purely relative. f Hence, we may consider 3 as negative, and 12 as positive,
or
(_
3)
x (-4)
12.
= ( 3)x 4, i.e., This "proof" assumes that 4 x( 3) it assumes the law of commutation for an operation
which has not even been defined.
that has occasionally been given
is
Another
"
"
proof
:
the following
= 20.
* The stands here for "multiplied by." If read "times" symbol the sequence of factors should be altered. = 4) t This becomes obvious if we consider the equation 3 N. X ( If we consider N. as positive, we have 12 S. i2;ifwa
3X~ 4=
A)
consider
N. as negative, the equation means
.1) (
*?
31 1
assumed that products containing negative multipliers are subject to the same law (distribution) as
Again
it is
those containing positive multipliers. The more rigorous books introduce the following definition of multiplication Multiplication is the opera:
tion of finding a to
number
that has the
same
relation
one factor (multiplicand) as the other factor (multiBut, aside from the vagueness plier) has to unity.
of the
term "relation,"
this definition is too difficult
for beginners.
Pedagogically it seems best to attack at first practical problems, and then to introduce a definition that agrees
with the results of the concrete examples. Thus we may consider a ship sailing north at the rate of 2 per 5 days hence the day, and crossing the equator to-day
;
ship will be at 10 N., or 2 x
= 10.
10.
days ago the ship
was
at 10
S.,
or 2
under the same
ship sailing south conditions leads to ( 2) x 5 = 10 and
x(
5)
(-2)x(-5)=io. Or we may consider
the (opposing) forces produced and taking away of a number of equal weights by adding We may consider the at the two sides of a balance.
changes
ballast.
in the lifting
power
of a balloon
produced by
increasing or
We
decreasing the quantity of gas or the may consider the changes in the income
arrival
of a
town by the
and departure of taxpayers and

latter receiving,
alms receivers, the former paying, the $100 annually. It appears from such examples that
to define multiplication
it
is
convenient
by a negative multiplier as a
312
repeated
subtraction,
or
4)
3)
4)
(-4)- (-4).
Having adopted
this definition, the
pedagogy of the
it
subject of multiplication offers no more difficulty. In the preceding paragraph Law of No Exception.
multiplier Such requires a widening of the original definition. modifications of definitions occur a number of times in
for school purposes it is legitimate to matters from applications, we should bear derive such in mind that scientifically, algebra is what it is, not in
was shown that a multiplication by a negative
algebra.
While
virtue of
its
applications, but in virtue of certain funda-
mental laws.
Hence
applications cannot demonstrate
anything in algebra.
guides us in such generalizations, and that has been called the Law of No
scientific principle that
The
Exception, or the Principle of the Permanence of Equiv-
Forms may be stated as follows " In the construction of arithmetic, every combination of two previously defined numbers by a sign for
alent
:
a previously defined operation (-f x, etc.) shall be invested with a meaning, even where the original
, ,
definition
of
nation,
and
the operation excludes such a combithe meaning imparted is to be such

still
that the old laws of reckoning' shall
hold good."
(Schubert.) Thus the definition of multiplication must be widened in such a way that we may operate with negative numbers in precisely the same way as with positive numcalculation involving a, b> c, bers, or in other words
:

etc., shall
313
c, etc.,
be just the same whether sent positive or negative numbers.
a, b,
repre-
This
is
accom-
plished by determining the definition so that it conforms to the fundamental laws of multiplication, viz.,
the commutative,
law.
the associative, and the distributive
Similarly the widening of any definition of any operation must conform to the fundamental laws of this
operation.
This
may be
further illustrated by consider-
ing the definition of power.
The
integer,
original
definition of
a n when #
,
is
a positive
is
becomes
absolutely
meaningless when
negative or fractional.
that ok
= tya. We
Hence, it is impossible to prove have to widen the definition, and
there
nothing in the original definition that compels It would not be illogical us to take a definite course.
is
to define
this
a by
but
it
would be very inconvenient,
for
would lead
to entirely different laws for fractional
than for integral exponents. Hence, we could never perform a calculation involving exponents unless we
knew whether n were integral or fractional. To avoid this we have to determine which definition of fractional
exponents leads to fundamental laws that are identical with those of positive integral exponents. (These laws ~ a m a* == a m+n am + a n = a m n (am )n = a mn (ab)m are SB a m bm
:
.)
Thus we are
a*
led to the definitions:
<z=
~Va m and
TO/
314
FACTORING
When
toring
will
is
Since each mode of facstudy factoring. based upon a method of multiplication, students
to
most readily discover a method of factoring

the corresponding multiplication
is
at the
time when
studied.
Thus
(x
after studying multiplication

~\-
examples of the type

attach
to
a)(x
b\
pupils will easily discover the factors of

It
is
a?+ 30
most
10.
therefore advisable to
sets of
multiplication examples
some factoring
This, however, does not imply that the questions. methods of factoring should afterwards not be collected,
and presented connectedly.
second and connected
presentation of all cases in factoring will impress these
important facts firmly upon the student's mind,
it
will
lead to a comparison of the various methods, to proper
notions about the selection of a method for a certain
Hence, it purpose, and it will make reviews easier. seems to the writer that the plan of connecting factoring and multiplication should not be carried out to the exclusion of a formal
and systematic presentation of the
subject later on.*

* The idea that every algebraic topic should be taught in connection with the subjects with which it is logically connected cannot be carried out in practice, since the number of such connections is too large. Thus
the multiplication a (b -f
c)
ab -f ac
is
connected with the factoring

~*~
example ab
+ ac = a (b
-f c),
but also with the division
ac
c,
and
this again leads to addition of fractions

all
= J2.5
a
But
obviously
these topics cannot be taught with a (b
+ c).
315
Which
ters
cases of factoring should be studied ?
For most
students factoring forms one of the most difficult chapThe study of factoring of elementary algebra.
sometimes discourages pupils so much that they lose all interest in the subject, and become indifferent and
Hence we algebra in general. should try to represent factoring as simply as possible, and to exclude all cases that are not necessary for future
inefficient students of
wodc.
Until quite recently the
writers,
policy
of
most textbook
to
and of most schools, however, has been
work
in exactly the opposite directions.
Instead of present-
ing a few cases and practicing them thoroughly, every case that possibly could be dragged in was taught.
Through extended mechanical drill and memorizing students were enabled to work quite difficult examples But a short at the time when the subject was studied. all was forgotten, and since the students time afterward
were unable
of factoring
drill.
to reconstruct
any method,
their
knowledge
was very small
in spite of the long-continued
The
cases which are absolutely necessary are of the
following types :
1.
ax + ay
+ az.
P, and
2.
av2 -\-bx-\-c, and the special cases
3.
a2 -
31 6
a later stage of the
4.
5.
At
work these may be studied :
a*b\
Grouping terms. The Remainder Theorems.
6.
Superfluous cases.
The
superfluity of other
methods
may be
which
illustrated
relate to a n
:
by a discussion of the five cases b n and which are sometimes stated

,
as follows
1.
n n
bn
b*
is
is
divisible
divisible
by a
by a by # by #
b, if
n
n
is
is if is
is
even.
2.
3.
+b
if
even.
an
bn
n
is
not divisible by a
divisible
,
4- b t
if
if
is
even.
4.
5.
an
an
is
is
n
n
odd.
divisible
all,
+ ^,
odd.
Now,
a
is prime.
first
of
we never use
the factors a
+b
or
b directly in examples of the type
an
b*9 unless
We
do not factor
+
:
(*
+ )("-
But we
let
^6
^ (03)2 _
we
(3)2
(03
8)(08
8),
In other words
try to represent the
two given
powers first as two squares^ then as two cubes, then as two fifth powers, etc.; i.e., we consider only powers whose
exponents are prime. But the only even prime
number
is
2,
hence
all
we
317
need to know about even powers two well-known facts

:
is
contained in the
(i)
c? -f V*
is
prime.
(2)
three rules are absolutely superfluous. worse than that they are misleading. But they are To select a b as a factor of a 12 b12 is the worst thing
first
:
Hence the
the student could do.
If n
is even,
an
b n should
always
be considered the difference of two squares.
Thus
and not
(a-b)(a
11
).
Similar considerations for odd powers show us that these formulas should not be used except for prime
values of n>
i.e.:
a*
b\
b l\ etc.
a ll
Of
before a n
is usually studied independently, and considered. But as hardly anybody adb 1 or higher powers, the vocates the factoring of a"
Zfl
these aB
b*
is
student has to study five complex

their similarity, very confusing
and, on account of
rules,
for the noble
purpose of factoring a
b .*
* Of course higher powers are sometimes used in advanced mathematics, as, e.g., in the study of binomial equations, and the connected To construct a regular polygon topics of constructing regular polygons. i. But how many pupils of seventeen sides we have to factor x 11
In beginners' classes will ever study the construction of the regular polygon of seventeen sides I
318
instructor
The
who wishes to
teach
all
examples relat
n b n has to teach no other formula ing to the binomial a 5 than a fi, which should be done concretely and not by having memorized the above five rules.
Factoring
ax*+bx+ c.
One
rather indispensable case,

4is
about whose presentation a wide diversity of opinion

exists, is the factoring of the
bx
c.
At
quadratic trinomial ax? a more advanced stage of the work it

4-
shown that ax*
bx -f
= a(x
r^ )(;r
r2 ), where
r^ and ra
are the roots of the equation ax*
+ bx -f c = o.
For be-
ginners this method example as follows

:
may be
represented by a concrete
)(* -4).
But even
in this
form most examples are too
difficult for
the beginner.
Another method makes

a special case of
every quadratic
as illustrated
trinomial
fol-
sP+px+q,
by the
lowing example
This method, however, requires fractions which are not known to the students at this stage of the work. Since

it
319
also leads to very large numbers, it is not surprising that it does not work well in most classes.
Another method which has been praised a great deal by some pedagogues splits the coefficient of x into two
numbers, thus, that their product equals
factor
find
is
ac.
E.g., to
6^r2
95
+
5
75,
two numbers whose sum
is
95 and whose product
450.
These numbers are

75
and
90.
- 15)- 5(r-
15)
There are two objections to this method. The numbers become sometimes exceedingly large, and the
student
is
unable to understand the reasons for the

natural way, and also the
procedure.
The most
way
that produces
the best results in most classes,* considers the operations the reverse of
the corresponding multiplication.
This method, usually called cross-product method, has been frequently attacked by writers who called it a
method of guessing, but who seem to forget that the other methods are also based upon guessing. The cross-product method becomes comparatively simple if we free the given expression from monomial
* Since the above was written, Mr. Fiske Allen has reported on some experiments which tested the three different methods in different classes
cross-product
(Mathematics Teacher, September, 1911). According to these tests the method was by far the most effective.
320
factors,
and bear
in
mind
that each of the resulting
binomial factors cannot then contain a monomial factor.
Thus
to factor
72 ;r
- 145*+
many
72.
We may
factor 72
in
different ways, but obvi-
ously these two factors must not have a common factor, since otherwise we would obtain a monomial factor
in
one of the binomials.

-
Hence we have
all
to try only
72 x x and gx
8x.
Excluding
numbers that pro-
duce monomial
only
I
factors, the last

9.
term can be factored
72 and 8
Hence we have only two
possibilities
J2x
The
9^+8
xj2
first
8xg
middle
combination obviously gives too large a term, while the second produces 145 x. Therefore
72**-
l45;r
+ 72=(9;F-8)(8;r-9>
While
it
unpedagogic to crowd the pupil with too many methods, the teacher should be acquainted with all the more important
difficult cases.
is
few
methods in order
to
be equal to any emergency.
is very interesting and that solves many which otherwise would be exceedingly diffiexamples cult, is based upon symmetry and cyclo-symmetry.
method that
function
is
symmetric with respect to
a,ndy
if
an
exchange of these letters does not

*-** 3 **
change the function,

is
5^*7
+ 3 T2
function
symmetric with
321
respect to x, y, and z, if it is symmetric with respect to any two of these letters, e.g.,
# + f + ^ a *b + ab* + Ifa + be* + c*a +

A
function
y
ca*.
and z
if
cyclo-symmetric with respect to x, y, by replacing x by y, y by z and z by x, we

is
y
obtain an identical equal function,
e.g.,
Every symmetric function

not vice versa.
is
cyclo-symmetric,
first
but
The symmetric
are
(1)
functions of the
three degrees
a(x+y + z).
(2) a(x* -f-y
(3)
^
I
.
+ *2)+ t(xy +yz + zx\ +y + ^)+ b(x*y + xy* + y*s +ys* + + xs?)+ cxyz.
of
The
Ex.
factoring
is
symmetric
expressions
illustrated
and cyclo-symmetric the following examples : by
x\y -z)+ y\z - x) -f z\x - y). Since the substitution x = y reduces the function to But the zero, the function is divisible by x y.
Factor
function
is
z and z
cyclo-symmetric, hence it is also divisible by x. Since the given function is homo-
geneous and of the third degree, the factors (x y\ {y #), and (z x) are all its literal factors, but there
may be an unknown numerical numerical factor, we have
factor.
If
k be
this
322
for x, y,
(
Substituting numerical values
and
or
z, e.g.
^r=2, 7=1, ^
= o;
+ =
2),
i.*
Hence
Ex.
If
2.
Factor *( y
the
^r)
+ X- ~ *J + *(* - X)
it
8
-
x = 7,
z and ^
function vanishes, hence
is
exactly
divisible
by xy.
cyclo-symmetric, are also factors of the function.

is
Since the function
is
Since the given function
homogeneous and
Such
of the
first
fourth degree, there must be another factor of the
degree which
is
cyclic
and homogeneous.
factors
are of the form k(x
+y + z).
Hence
- *)3
Making x =
2,
X s (x -yj
z
y=
I,
= o,
6),
2- 8 + o=(
Hence
or
= i.
Ex.
3.
Factor
(x- yj+ (y -
^-f-C*
-xf.
In like manner as in the preceding examples we obtain the factor (x~ y^y z\z x). The remaining
* The value of k
may also
similar terms in both
be formed by comparing the coefficients = members. Thus &y = z. ktfy, i.e., k
of

factor
ric,
323
must be of the second degree and cyclo-symmeti.e., it must be of the form
k(# +y* + z*)+

where k and
/ are
l(xy
+yz + *x\
Hence
unknown numbers.
Making x =
2,
\,
o,
we
obtain
Making x =
= o, i, _y
(2),
+ 2/=i5. z= we
i,
(I) obtain
:
2*- 7-iS.
Solving (i) and
(2)
=5, /=
5.
Hence
(*
-y\y - *X* - ^X*2 +72 + ^2 - *y -y - **)

;
following list contains a few examples of this type with their answers others may be found in any of the larger treatises on algebra.
The
2.
3.
4.
5.
324
e.
=
7(
(x
=
8.
EQUATIONS AND PROBLEMS

Identities
and
equations
of
condition.
There
is
obviously a great difference between the statements
+a=
2 a,
and a
+ 7 = 2 a.
The
;
former, called an
identity, is
is
true for all values of a
the
latter, called
an
true only for a certain value of a, viz., 7. equation^ An identity, sometimes also called an identical equation, it is a theorem. states a demonstrable mathematical fact
;
equation (or equation of condition) requires the finding of the root or roots, hence it is a problem. Equations must be solved identities must be proved.
;
An
It
is
not always possible to decide by inspection

is
whether an equality
an identity or an equation of
if
condition, *but this fact appears
we apply
the usual
If all terms cancel, i.e., for solving equations. the equality reduces to the form o == o, it is an idenThus, to decide whether the following statement tity.
if
method
is
an identity or an equation we proceed as follows
x
Transposing,
or
6x
6
JT
6x
;r
Clearing of fractions,
3=^+3
6+3
x+2x*=
0=0.
325
is
The result indicates

tity,
that the given statement

is
an iden-
and the above deduction
a proof of the identity.
If not
It
may
every term cancels, the equality is an equation. happen, however, that an equation is not satisfied
finite
by any
value of the
unknown
quantity,
e.g.,
Since
oo
+3=
oo
+ 4, we may
say the root
;r
= oo.
If
in
an equation
all terms containing the
unknown
quantity cancel, while the remaining terms do not cancel, In case of an applied problem, the root is infinity.
however, the root infinity indicates that the problem has no solution.
Similar remarks
may be made
about two equations
If we eliminate one involving two letters, e.g., x and/. of the two quantities, the resulting equality (called the In such a case each of eliminant) may be an identity.
the given equations
is
a consequence of the other.
The
may
equations are dependent, and any value whatsoever be assigned to one of the unknown quantities.
if
Thus,
we eliminate/ by comparison from

:
the follow-
ing system
y= K
\y(x
i
_^_--2x-s) =
x+2,
(2)
we
obtain
The
solution of (3) leads to the result
= 0.
Hence
equations (i) and (2) are dependent.
326
If
-
the eliminant leads to an equality of the form a, no finite values of the unknown quantities
the
equations.
o x=
satisfy
Such
equations
are
called
is
inconsistent.
system obviously inconsistent
the
following
The preceding
topics have
in a secondary school, but
little value for the pupil the teacher should be ac-
quainted with them, since occasionally questions of this type will arise in the classroom.
following should not recognize the L. C. D., and i)C* + i), we should multiply both members by 2(x obtain the following solution:
Equivalent
equations.
Suppose
in
the
equation
we
or
*
Hence
8^-1-8=3^+5^ + 2. 3^- 3;r-6 = o.
(2)
(3) (4)
Therefore,
^=
1,^=2.
(5)
But only one of these roots, viz., ^- = 2, satisfies (i), and the question arises what error produced the answer
.*=
i.
Quite often equations are treated as

equation (i) was true and
*
we
the given had to prove that each

if
of inconsistent,
Graphic methods explain most lucidly the nature consistent, independent, and dependent equations.

successive equation
(2,
3,
327
4, etc.)
was
true.
As
each
from the preceding one by a certain axiom, no error could thus be found in the above example. However, we do not have to prove a
of these statements follows
theorem, but to find a root that
satisfies (i);
must show that
(i)
is
true, if (5) is true, or
i.e., we we have to
examine the steps from (5) to (4), from (4) to (3), etc. The step from (2) to (i) is justified by the axiom: If equals be divided by equals, the quotients are equal.
This axiom, however, is not true for zero divisors. Hence this step is not justified if
equation (2), does not need to (and this example does not) satisfy
i,
Hence the value ;r=
which
satisfies
equation
(i).
Multiplying both members of an equation by an ex-
duces a
pression involving the unknown quantity usually intronew root (called an extraneous root).
Thus
(x
;r
3)(^r
= 4 has = 4(* 5)
3
one
root,
x = 7.
roots,
5) has
two
;r= 7 and
#=5.
Equations which have the same roots are called In the solution of an equation equivalent equations.
it is
necessary to prove that every equation is equivaIn elementary algebra, lent to the preceding one.
equations lead
however, the solutions of

one.
only very
rarely to equations that are not equivalent to the given
Two
cases of this kind are the following
328
Multiplying the members of a fractional equation by a multiple of the denominators, which is not the lowest, introduces extraneous roots.
Squaring both members of equations usually introduces extraneous roots e.g.,

;
If
*-4=2,
^2-8^+16 = 4.
viz.,
(I)
(2)
then
Equation (i) has only one root, tion (2) has two roots, x = 2 and
x = 6,
while equa-
x = 6.
Consequently the solutions of radical equations often lead to extraneous roots,* and all roots of radical equations require checking.
Quadratic equations.
for
The most important method

is
solving
quadratics
the
one based upon the
formula.
the square is necessary for obtaining this formula and for reconstructing it, if the student should forget. Completing
The method based on completing
not well adapted to the solution of more complex numerical or of literal equations, and
the square, however,
is
it
labor.
it
involves in any example a good deal of unnecessary Hence while this method deserves some practice,
should not be extended too
far,
and certainly not to
the study of several methods for completing the square. Since the formula for the roots of the equation
&+px+q=*o
*
leads to complex fractions in case the

it
coefficient of jp is not unity,

This happens, however, only to their prefixed signs.
if
is
better to study the
we
restrict the values of the radicals

formula for the roots of the equation ax*
viz.:
329
+ bx + c = o,
This formula should be thoroughly memorized and applied to many numerical and literal examples.
The
this
third
method which deserves
serious attention is
the solution by factoring.
Many
writers
recommend
method, on account of its simplicity, as the first method to be studied. If factoring could be used for
the solution of every equation, and the formula could thus be entirely excluded, this would undoubtedly be
the best plan.

ples
But students
in order to solve all
exam-
must study the formula, and if this is done after equations have been solved by factoring, such work is On usually considered very tiresome and unnecessary.
the other hand, students
who
first
study the completing
of the square usually take great interest
and pleasure
in
the study of the factoring method. It is a revelation to them that examples which formerly required so much
work can be done so simply and so quickly. Moreover, we must not forget that in practical examples the coefficients
depend upon measurement, and hence practically never lead to equations that can be factored. Besides simplicity, the method based on factoring has
two advantages, viz., it can be applied to equations of higher degree, and it produces all roots of an equation more readily than the other methods.
In
solving
x6
9 jr
8
+ 8=o
x*=
by the
i.
formula, the
is
student obtains
x*=
and
Hence he
likely
33O
to conclude:
;r=2,
x=
i.
But the factoring method
readily leads to six roots because
The factoring method

members
removes one or more
also
of an equation
shows us that dividing both by an expression involving x

Thus, when dividing both a 1 = (x x) by a)(a + b
root
is
roots.
members of the equation jp a, we should note that one

making x
a
obtained by
= o,
while the other follows from
x + a=z
Applied problems.
4- b
x*
or, as
Applied problems,
they are
often called, reading problems, form possibly the most
important topic of elementary algebra.

*
Unfortunately,
Among
mentioned a
the mechanical devices for solving quadratics, there slide rule which the author has constructed.
may be
It consists of a rule bearing the scale B,
which
slides in
another rule
bearing scales
the natural scale of positive and negative numbers, the numbers on the scale C are the doubles of the corresponding ones on B, and the numbers on A are the squares of those
and C.
The
scale
is
on B.
etc.
Thus on A
solve 3? -h
2 units
from
o,
we
find 4
3 units from o,
we
find 9,
To
ing
("
px
-f q
(in
arrow o below the number p
(i.e.,
the diagram z2 4* 32) put the 4) in C, and read off the correspond-
number in A (i.e., 4). From this number subtract the absolute term 3 2 )> and locate the difference (36) in scale A. Opposite these num-
bers (36) in scale
are found the roots
4,
and x
8.
This slide rule can be used to find large and small roots, imaginary
coots,
maxima or minima
of the function, etc.
331
students find problem work exceedingly difficult and consequently loathe this subject. The ability to
many
solve problems requires two things, viz., the ability to think, and a knowledge of the technique of such work.
Many
students
who can
reason logically
fail
because
they have not grasped the technique of the subject.
Hence we should
cally
try to introduce students systemati-
and slowly into the methods of attacking such
work.
Every problem presupposes the ability to translate an English sentence into algebraic shorthand, and a systematic study of such translations should form the
At first the starting point for the study of problems. student should write in algebraic symbols expressions like the following
:
The sum of the squares of a and b. The product of the cubes of a and b. The cube of the difference of m and n. Then should follow translations that have a bearing
upon problems, as
:
By how much
does a exceed 10?

is
Write three consecutive numbers whose smallest
x.
is
?
20 years
old.
How
old
will
he be
in
years
hence
Find* As far
in
of 700.*
as possible, all quantities that later
on occur
here.
problems and their relations should be considered The next step is writing equations without at-
* If such questions should be too difficult, propose the corresponding arithmetic questions ; i.e., By how much does 12 exceed 10? etc.
33 2
tempting to solve them. The first equations should be so simple that they can be translated, word after word, e.gn The double of a equals 10.
2
x a
is 5
as
10.
?
Which number
of 450
*
After a
fairly
ifo x 450.
of
practice,
good amount
reading
to
problems may one unknown number and as can

;
be attacked,
at first only such as refer
be translated
directly
tities,
then those which involve two

is
where one sentence
unknown quanused to express one un-
quantity in terms of the other, while the other sentence produces the equation. In a similar way we should in all following chapters on problems attempt a complete classification of the
known
culties.
examples and avoid the accumulation of several diffiThe details of such a method can, however, be
It is true that
fully explained only in a textbook.*
made
a special case of a certain type.
by no means every problem can be But by studying
simple problems arranged according to a certain system, the student acquires a familiarity with the technique of
the subject which in many cases will help in the solution of problems that require real original thinking.
GRAPHS
Reasons for teaching graphs.
school courses
The
reasons that have
led to the introduction of graphs into our secondary
may be summarized
as follows
* See the author's Algebra.

1.
333
The study of graphs is very concrete and hence counteracts somewhat the tendency of school algebra to become a mechanical application of known rules.
2.
Graphic representations are at present so widely

is
used in daily papers, magazines, and books, that a certain familiarity with these devices
culture.
3.
a part of general
This mode of representing variables

sciences.
is
used a
great deal in other
To
study successfully
physics, mechanics, chemistry, meteorology, economics,

etc.,
4.
the student has to be acquainted with graphs.
By graphs many mathematical

the
facts
become
visi-
ble to
e.g.,
the eye, which otherwise would remain obscure,
number
of roots of various equations, the nature
of inconsistent equations, of independent equations, etc.
graphs enables the student to solve which he could otherwise not solve at many examples
5.
The study
of
all;
as,
the solution of higher equations, the solution of
transcendental equations, etc. 6. The student acquires a clear notion of one of the
most important notions of advanced mathematics,

functionality.
7.
viz.,
Graphs
interest
students and are easily under-
stood.
Introductory examples.
The
is
teaching of the funda-
mental
for such
ideas of graphs
so simple, and the material
work so abundant, that only a few points need be mentioned here

:
i.
Classify the
a.
work as follows
Graphic representation of a given numerical
334
table; as, graphs of temperature, population,
etc.
(See U. S. Statistical Abstract, or the

tables
t.
World Almanac.) Graphs of numerical

has to calculate
;
which the student
c.g.>
the cost of iron from
o
c.
Ib.
to
6
of
Ib.
Graphs
as,
physical and geometric formulae;
C=ty-R.
d.
e.
Algebraic graphs. Graphic solution of problems.

not sufficient to construct graphs they should Thus in a temperature graph, the
;
2.
It is
also be interpreted.
student should find the temperature at a given time, the time corresponding to a given temperature, maxima
and minima, the time of most rapid increase of temperature, etc.

3.
line
Students should learn that the graph is a straight through the origin if the two quantities involved
are proportional; and should derive therefrom a quick method for constructing such graphs.
4.
use
can
necessary to An ordinary ruled sheet cross-section paper. also be used to advantage. For blackboard
it
To
obtain fairly good results
is
work a system of squares may be scratched into the board by a triangular file (make side equal to about
2 inches).
5.
Do
not spend too

of functions.
much time
It is
in constructing statis-
tical
graphs.
not sufficient that students
Graphs
construct the graphs of functions, and thereby solve
335
equations; they should use these diagrams to solve many other problems relating to functions and equaThus students should find maxima and minima ; tions.
they should recognize that the same drawing may be used to solve f(x) = o, and f(x) = 5 they should see 8 .r 6 .r2 + i\ x 6 = has three roots, while why
;
only one root, etc. In the discussion of simultaneous equations, graphs may be used to show why simultaneous linear equations
r8
6^-f-
nx
= 40 has
have only one set of roots, while those of higher degree have several sets. Graphs make clear to the
student
root,
why inconsistent linear equations have no finite and why dependent equations have an infinite
of roots.
number
Problems are usually Graphic solution of problems. solved in algebra by expressing the conditions of the problems in the form of equations. By using the
graphic method, however, many problems can be solved directly, without obtaining equations.
The
Thus,
fact
mentioned above, that the graph of two proa straight line, is often useful. are the coordinates of a point, the folis
portional variables
if
x and y
lowing variables are represented
by straight
;tr
lines
x=
;
time, y = distance covered by body moving uniformly = volume, y = x = time, y = work done by a person of a body x = time, y = quantity of water flowweight
;
;
ing through a pipe at a uniform rate, etc. To represent graphically the motion of a person traveling 3 miles per hour,
one
point, e.g. % (i,
only necessary to locate 3) or A, and to connect this point to

it
is
336
The increase of the ordinate per hour the origin. the rate of travel, i.e., 3 miles per hour. equals Similarly, CD represents the motion of another person
who
i^
started
hours later and traveled

hour.
miles
per
EFGH repre4 miles,

trav-
sents graphically that a third person had a

start of
eled 2 hours at the

rate
of
4 miles per
rested
2
hour, then
hours, and
finally returned to the starting point at the IK represents graphically the rate of 2 miles per hour.
the
of
motion of a fourth person who started 3 hours after first and traveled in the opposite direction at the rate
i
mile per hour.

i.
Ex.
and
start walk-
ing from two towns 15 miles apart, and walk toward each
other.
A walks at the
rate of
3 miles per hour, but rests i hour on the way; B travels
at the rate of
4 miles per hour

hours.
and
rests
In
how
?
many hours do
they meet
Construct the graphs OA'A"A'" and BB'B"B"'. of C, the point of intersection, is the required time. and B meet in hours. Hence
The
abscissa
4+

Ex.
of
its 2.
337
stone
is
dropped into a
well,
and the sound
impact upon the water is heard at the top of the well 5 seconds later. If the velocity of sound is assumed
as 360 meters per second,
and
the
^= 10 meters, how deep

well?
is
(A body
fl
falls
in
seconds
meters.)
- 360) and (5, o). The ordinate of the point of interjoining (4, is the required number. section
of the falling body, making the disConstruct the graph tances negative, to indicate the downward motion. Since the motion of the sound is an upward motion, its graph CB is obtained by
ODA
Hence depth of
well
10 meters.
Ex.
3.
when weighed
Six ounces of gold quartz lose \\ ounces in water. If quartz loses \ of its weight,
and gold
of
its
weight when placed in water, how many

ounces of gold are in the six ounces ?
Let OA represent the weight of the body, and the loss of weight in water. Through O draw <7C, ascending at the rate of
AB
(*'.*.,
DB,
and (19, i), or at the rate of \. ascending

joining
intersection of
OC
and BD,
draw (5, T^)). Through abscissa of P, the point of represents the required amount of gold
and
The
(if ounces).
Ex.
4.
Find the amount of $5 for 4 years at

interest.*
is
20%
compound
diagram.
* The high rate of interest
taken in order to produce a small
Represent the year by the unit of abscissas and the dollar by the
unit of the ordinates,
and
let
OA
represent $5.00.
On OX'
lay on*
QA I
122. rate
20
Draw
AA
and produce
it
to B, then
the
ordinate of
B represents
the amount after one year.
Draw B'B and
YEARS
B'
*^
produce to C, then C represents the amount after two years, The ordinate of E, i.e., $10.30, represents the required amount.
etc.
of course not necessary to draw the lines ', y will pass etc. Place the ruler so that the prolongation of through A', etc. The broken line represents the amount better than the formula a(i + r) n, since the latter is true only for
It is
NOTE.
A A BB
BA
ABODE
integral values of n.
Purely graphic methods.
The customary method

is
of
constructing the graphs of a function
not purely

graphic, since
viz.,
it
339
requires considerable arithmetical work,
the calculation of the values of the ordinates.
These
values, however,
thus the work
may made purely
be found by constructions, and

graphic.
The
construction
of values of a rational integral function
may
be
illus-
trated
ax?
by constructing the value of the cubic function bx2 -f- ex 4- d for a given value of x.
*
On tfFlayoff OE=d, EF^c, FG =

and make
OA = x, OB = i.
Draw
GH=a, AC and BI parallel

i>,
toOY.
Draw
Draw Draw
HI\\
.
OX, and
II
let
GI meet
OJT, and let

<9^,
ZFmeet
AC in
M.
MN
II
and
fcr
let
3
NE meet ^4C in P.
may be
indicated as
Then /4P
^+
The
follows
proof of this construction

:
340
Draw
GQ
and
FS
parallel to
spectively in
and T.
OX, meeting Since ?/= a,
AC
re-
or
RKâx.
Hence
Since
or
= b -f
TM= ax* -f bx, etc.

For certain fundamental functions the preceding conbecomes very simple. Thus if y = x* we may
%
struction
construct y (or
AF) if x or
:
(OA) is given, as follows Make OB and BD equal

to
unity (different scales may be used for abscissas

ordinates),
and
and
let
the
prolongation of
OD
||
meet
AKinC.
B t
DrawC^ OX,
then the prolongation of OE meets A 1C in the re-

quired point F.
portion
:
341
the pro-
(This
:
OB BE = OA AF or
may be proved also by I x = x :y.)

:
The preceding methods

if
for finding /(.r) are practical
only a few values of the function have to be found, otherwise the multiplicity of lines will confuse the
student.
Another method, which
is
simpler
when many
values
of the ordinate are required, depends
upon the use of certain standard curves, each of which may be used to
solve
any quadratic, or any cubic, etc. Thus every quadratic equation may be solved by means of the paand a straight line.* The curve y = x* is the same, no matter what quadratic we wish to solve, hence it may be printed or mimeographed.
rabola
y~x*
The
trated
principle underlying these
methods may be
illus-
by two examples
solve
To
Let
ax*
&r +
= o.
(i)
(2)
Then
ay
solution of
(2)
+ bx + c = z>.\
and (3)
is
,-*!
(3)
The
(3)
is
quired root of (i).
But [2)
for x produces the reour standard curve, while
a straight
line.
:
Thus, to solve the equation
11^+30*
We
let
Then
straight line,
11^/4-30*
may
= 0. 7 = **. 165 = o.
165
(i)
(2)
(3)
* Theoretically a quadratic
be solved by any conic section and a practical solutions are obtained from the curves : y **,
a^.
-,
and y
342
20
!
10
-it
In
The
is
then j/= 15 if / = o, then ;r = s|. straight line joining the points (o, 15) and (s|, o)
(3), if
jtT
= o,
P and P
we have
the graph of (3), which intersects the graph of (2) in and P' 9 By measuring the abscissas of
r
.
x=
S^
2
2.7, or
*=
:
5.5.
Similarly, to solve the equation
14^
65
=o.
(i)
Let
Then
14*
of
j = ^. 65 = o.
(2)
,
Measuring the abscissas
and
(?
we
obtain
*=5-3 or;r= -2.5.

The
similar
construction of the graph of ax?
+ &r + c
by a
method
is
shown
a=
in the next diagram.
Draw the
standard curve
y~x?(DOB)
3,
and the
8, c
=
line
3.)
ay+bx + c.
(In the diagram,
b=

6
343
14
to
//
&
;A-
7-
\
\F
18
'
H>
344
'
Draw a new .tr-axis XQ XQ and make the values at the new ^/-axis a times (3 times) as large as originally. Make CD' = CD, E'F' = EF '#'= GH, M*N*=MN,
9
etc.,
then
D'E'H'N
is
the required graph.
In a similar manner, incomplete and complete cubics may be solved, and their graphs be constructed by means
of the cubic parabola
y = x? and
straight lines, or
by
to
y=*x* and
circles.
It is possible
by these methods
solve biquadratics, and to construct their graphs, to find the imaginary roots of quadratics, cubics, biquadratics,
etc.
For further
detail,
the reader
is
referred to the
author's Graphic Algebra.
IRRATIONAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS
What
are irrational
numbers?
The
first
numbers
natural numbers,
ever used in arithmetic were undoubtedly the so-called and they were then conI, 2, 3,
.
symbols that represent the number of things in a certain group. Using such
i.e. 9
sidered as cardinal numbers,
and multiplication are operaare always possible. In order to make division tions that an operation that is always possible, fractions had to be
numbers
only, addition
invented, and to accomplish the
same for
subtraction,
negative numbers had to be introduced. f If we wish to make evolution an operation that

The Macmillan Co., New York, 1908. The introduction of negative numbers makes
is
it necessary to adopt the ordinal view of numbers, i.e., the view that numbers are merely marks of order. The use of fractions enables us to use number to indicate the
results of
measurement, such as the length of a
line,
the area of a
rectangle, etc.

always possible, irrational numbers have to be
duced.
sible
345
intro-
Using
rational
numbers
n
,
only,
V2
is
an impos-
number.
For
if
V2 =
where
and n have no
is
common
factor,
then 2
% ,
a result that
n*
evidently
impossible.
Hence, there was a time when irrational
numbers were considered impossible numbers. The fact that irrational numbers are just as real as rational numbers is made clear by geometric considerations. Every rational number can be represented by a point in
the geometric illustration of the number scale, but not every point in that line represents a rational number.
Thus if OB equals the hypotenuse whose other sides equal x B' then point B rep- *-j -2 '-I unity,
'
of a right triangle
B
'
resents an irrational number.
Hence,
irrational
numbers
are real numbers.

Definition of irrational numbers.
irrational
If
we
defined an
number, as A/2,
by the equation
A/2
V2 X
we would make
= 2,
the mistake of using the symbol x withFor the symbol of multiplicaout defining its meaning. tion has thus far been invested with a meaning only if
the factors are
two
irrational
real, and its meaning when connecting numbers cannot be defined until irrational
numbers are
defined.
The
definition
which
is
now most widely

here,
is
accepted, but
which cannot be
fully explained
due
to
the
346
It
mathematicians of the Berlin school.

irrational
considers aa
number as a symbol of the division of al\ rational numbers into two classes, each number of one class being distinguished from each number of the other
class
by a
characteristic property.*
obviously impossible to teach these matters in a secondary school, and even the method which shows
It is
that the
V2
I
is
the
mark
viz.,
of division
between two
sets of
concrete numbers,
1.4
1.5
1.41
1.414
1.415
and and
1.42
similar discussions have
no value, since the student

is
does not understand the reasons that make us search for

a definition of irrational which
based upon rational
numbers
only.
to
may, however, point out assumptions that have been made
We
him some of the

:
in writing
V2 XV3=V5Imaginary numbers.
operation that
is
In order to
make
two
the
evolution an
of
always possible, the introduction

rational
*We may
numbers
of
divide
all
numbers
into
classes so that all
one
class (A) are greater or equal to 2, while all
numbers
of
the other class (B) are less than 2. the two classes. Every number in A
Then
is
2 is
greater
mark which divides than every number in B.

2,
In class A there
to assign a
is
one number which

in
is
smallest, viz.,
but
it is
impossible
number
which
all
is
greatest.
numbers into two classes A and B. numbers whose square is greater than 2, class B contains all rational numbers whose square is less than 2. It is, however, impossible to assign a smallest number in A, or a greatest number in B.
Similarly \/2 divides
class
rational
The
contains
all
rational

irratiohal
347
numbers
is
necessary, but not sufficient.
To
V i or 4 with a meaning, imaginary nummust be introduced. Imaginary numbers were considered impossible numbers long after negative
invest
bers
and
if
it
irrational
numbers had been accepted.
This was
mainly due to the fact that a problem has no solution

leads to a quadratic with imaginary roots. If all algebra were limited to quadratic equations, there would
be no practical reason for introducing imaginaries. In solving cubics by Cardan's method, however, the answers appear in an imaginary form if all roots are
real
(irreducible
case).
Thus the problem, already

"
:
mentioned, by Archimedes
To
one third of
its
volume by a plane," leads
cut off from a sphere to a cubic
whose
appear in imaginary form. Hence to obtain the real answer we must be able to operate with
roots
imaginaries.
Imaginary numbers are just as real as other numbers, and the view formerly so prevalent that imaginary
numbers are impossible is erroneous. imaginary numbers appears from many

mathematics.
The
reality of
topics of higher
is
upon
scale.
the
It
best elementary illustration geometric representation of the
The
based
number
can easily be shown * that
imaginary and complex numbers are represented by points without the

line
OX. Thus point

i,
sents 3
B (or line OB} repreOC represents 4 + 3

i.
o"
* See Advanced Algebra,
p. 377.
348
It
can be proved that all operations of algebra are always possible, if we use rational, irrational, and comto
Hence no other kind of number has plex numbers. be introduced into algebra, unless we change the
fundamental laws upon which the whole science rests. The teaching of imaginaries. Beginners sometimes
expect that
that
:
(V
2
)
i)
should equal
i.
I,
for they claim
V^l = V(~^7/ = Vi =
equals
n
i
But
obviously
(V
i)
only, since roots are defined

i
by the
is inerroneous answer + equation (~\/a) troduced by a careless application of the law (-\/a)m = Vtf m which, even in the domain of real number, is
,
= a. The
true only in regard to the absolute values of the

bers.
num-
Thus (Vs) =5, and only

2
5,
but the above law

5
would give (Vs)
= V25=
5,
the answer
8
being
I, while the Similarly (Vi) evidently wrong. above law would produce the wrong answers i, and
I
=+
*.,
A similar difficulty occurs
_=
3
is
:
in multiplying imaginaries,
iV2 x
rv/3 ==
flV6
V6.
:
Here the student
inclined to proceed as follows
V^3 x V ^=V(-2)(~3) = V6.

The
signs.
difficulty is
caused by the arbitrary restriction of

in its true
If
3,
were taken
meaning,
viz.,
and
similarly
V
The
2 as
2,
their product
would equal
6.
arbitrary restriction of the

original signs involves the restriction of the
349
answer to
can
V6, and
it is
worth emphasizing that
this result
be obtained only by writing or z V#. The form a + bi
V
is
a in the form
called the typical
form of
complex numbers. If the student is aware that all imaginary numbers must be reduced to their typical
form before they can be added, subtracted, multiplied, etc., he knows practically all that is needed for operations with
complex numbers.
LOGARITHMS
Since logarithms are The teaching of the theory. introduced into our school curriculum mainly on ac-
count of their practical value, it seems to be advisable not to carry study of the theory too far. If thus restricted
to
the
most
fundamental
propositions,
the
all
theory of logarithms
becomes very simple, because
tion,
propositions are the direct consequences of the definix if b n. Thus any which states that x Iog6
problem or theorem that
may
be proposed should be
For instance, tp find written in the exponential form. we have to translate the equation x Iog6 1 into log I,
the form b x =
I,
and the answer
is
obvious.
9
To prove that log b (^)=;tr-l-j, if x=logb m and = Iog6 we have to write hypothesis and conclusion y
,
in the exponential
form and the proof

Iog6 m,
/*,
is
evident;
viz.,
Hyp.
x=
i.e.,
i.e.,
b*m.
b v **n.
7=log6
Con
x +y =
loga
mn,
*.*.,
350
Similarly,
to
express Iog 8
we
write the
equation
x = Iog3 5
^
*
by common logarithm, in the form 3* = 5.
This exponential equation solved by the usual method

produces the value
x=
log 3
If still greater simplicity should be required, consider the above theorems concretely. Thus,
we may
= .30103, log 3 = -47712,

log 2
i.e.,
io-
30103
= 2.
=3.
i.e.,
.
io
j
47712
.778i5
= 6>
=.778 1 5.
or
log 6
Although the increasing Logarithmic calculations. use of calculating machines has somewhat diminished
the practical importance of logarithms, the subject is Hence still the most useful one in elementary algebra.
it is
necessary to make the student so familiar with the practical use of logarithms that he can do the work ac-
curately and quickly.
We
must
not,
however, carry numerical accuracy to
an extreme.
Four-place tables are sufficient for many practical purposes, although there are occasions when But tables containing six five-place tables are needed.
or
more places should not be used
in school, since they
are needed only in very exceptional cases. In using any table we ought to take care not to carry the accuracy of the numerical results farther than the
table justifies.
This does not refer so much to such ob-
vious absurdities as the finding of six places by means of a five-place table, but mainly to using a table as if all

places given were absolutely
exact.
351
But limiting a
logarithm to five places means neglecting the following places, i.e., it involves an error that may equal ^ a unit of the last place. Adding or subtracting logarithms
produces a possible error equal to the sum of all errors. Multiplying a logarithm by six means multiplying the
error
by
six, etc.
Thus
to find the logarithm of

6 1414 x 27
x^
we have
.0/2
-Vlj
the following possible errors.

POSSIBLE ERROR
log 1414
5
unit of last place.

last place.
log 27
| unit of
log .072
\ log
.*.
02
^ unit of last place. unit of last place.

3 1 unit of last place.
if
logjr
But even
we do
not add and subtract at

e.g., let
all,
the use
of the table involves errors,
log;r= 1.59120.
A five-place table gives the answer

.r= 39.01^ or 39.0118.
But the numerator
(2)
is
the denominator, which

rithms,
is
subject to an error of J, while the difference of two logaf.
may
contain an error of
Hence
== .25,
the true
c -^ = .13.
I
value of the fraction
^ may be
or
Consequently the last place of x (8) has no value, and even the preceding place (i) is only an approximation.
If,
however, as in the
first
example, the value of log*
may contain an error of several units of the last place, it is useless to attempt to obtain more than 4 significant
figures for the value of x. The slide rule Slide Rule.
is
a very simple instru-
ment which
calculates mechanically products, quotients,

etc.
powers, roots,
Its
principle
is
based upon the
properties of logarithms, which are most lucidly illusNo teacher who trated by means of this instrument.
able to secure some slide rules should neglect to explain to his students the principle and the use of this
is
wonderful
little
machine.
CHAPTER XXI
GENERAL REMARKS
Peculiarities
of
the subject.
The advantages and
disadvantages of the study of trigonometry, as compared with that of other branches of school mathematics, may
be
briefly
summarized as follows
Advantages.
1.
In
practical utility of the subject is very great. of all the branches of secondary school mathefact,
The
matics, trigonometry has
by
far the largest
number
of
genuine and interesting applications.

is
This applicability
not restricted to school work only. Trigonometry is so widely used in all exact sciences, that it has been
called the
backbone
of applied mathematics.
"
Not only
is it
indispensable to the surveyor, to the navigator, to
the. ophthalmologist, to the mechanical and electrical engineer, but on account of the flexibility of its forms,
it
is
the best school of
preparation
for
the future
analyst."
2.
(Simon.)
of trigonometry offers a good field for the training of the students in accuracy and in exactIn particular it may be used to familiarize the ness.
The study
student with a topic which, in spite of its practical importance, is usually neglected, viz., the methods of
numerical calculation.
aA
353
354
3.
The
much
1.
subject is comparatively easy, and contains that is of interest to young students.

disciplinary value of trigonometry
Disadvantages.
The
is
comparathan
tively small.
2.
Trigonometry
or algebra.
requires
more
It is
memorizing
geometry
iarities
Courses in trigonometry.
which
were
mentioned
evident that the peculin the preceding
paragraph must form the guiding principles for the

selection of the subject matter for courses in geometry. ~~ In particular we should
: ;
parts of trigonometry which are to practical problems or which lead indirectly applicable
1.
Emphasize
all
to such applications.
Reduce, as far as possible, all topics which require memorizing, or which cannot be applied by the second2.
ary school student. From the first principle follows the importance of the solution of the right triangle, of the solution of the
general triangle, of the calculation of heights and disFrom the second maxim follows that the tances, etc.
number
duced
of formulae
to
be memorized should be rethat large portions of certain
to a
minimum, and
For example, the functions topics should be omitted. of versed sine and coversed sine should never be mentioned,
and the secant and cosecant should be used
only rarely.
The
latter
two functions should be omitted
entirely, if unfortunately it were not true that so many American textbooks on advanced mathematics make ex-

tensive use of them.*
355
On
the continent of Europe the
secant and cosecant are almost entirely excluded from
school use, tables hardly ever contain them, and textbooks on advanced mathematics use them only sparSome German writers even condemn the use of ingly.
the cotangent. If the secant, the cosecant, and the cotangent are studied, it is only necessary to know that these functions
Thus are reciprocals of the other three functions. to find cot (A +-#), find first tan (^+-5); to express
sec
A
2
in terms of cos
etc.
A, express
first
cos
A
2
in
terms of
formula relating to secant, cosecant, and cotangent should be studied. Among other topics that may be greatly reduced
cos A,
explicit
No
the treatment of angles greater than 90. Angles greater than 360 have practically no value to the secondary school student and even those bein
is
volume
tween
80
Hence
it
and 360 are only very rarely applied. seems to be absurd to make the student
six
memorize
or
more formulae
for the
reduction of
functions greater than 90
to those of angles less
than
90.
Also the proofs of trigonometric
identities
and the
* Textbooks often use the secant and cosecant

fractions.
in order to avoid
Thus instead
a esc
c.
of writing sin
this
it
=ffi-^, some books state

sin c
sin A =
sin
But
not found in the tables, but
not only introduces a function which is also destroys the analogy with plane trig-
onometry (sin
=*-J.
356
is
solution of trigonomtric equations
frequently carried
farther than the values of these subjects justify. If there is more time at the disposal of the teacher
than
is
work, it theorem and
needed for the more practical phase of the would be better invested in studying Moivre's
its
connection with the geometric representation of complex numbers, than in proving identities
:
like
sin (x
cos
+ 2y) - 2 sin (x +y) + sin x = 2 cos (x +y) cos x (x + 2 y)

-f-
tan
TYPICAL PARTS OF TRIGONOMETRY

Definitions of the trigonometric functions.
tions are usually defined
The
func-
by one of the following three
methods
1.
As
By As quotients of the sides of a right triangle. The first method is quite general, i.e., it refers
2.
3.
quotients of positive and negative coordinates. means of line values.
to
frequently given the openiflg chapters of textbooks. But, on the other hand, the notion of positive and negative lines, of
in
angles in all quadrants,
and hence
it is
coordinates, etc., brings into the subject a
number
of
difficulties which may at first be avoided, and hence this method can hardly be recommended as a starting method.
quadrant are by far the most important for the high school student, and hence no
functions of the
first
The
harm
is
done
in
restricting
the opening chapters to
acute angles.
The method
of representing the functions
by
single

lines is also general,
357
to
and admirably adapted
an
ex-
amination of the changes of the functions when the angle changes; but the same objection as was made in
the
first
case
makes these
definitions unfit for a start.
For the solution
of the right triangle,
which may be
considered the backbone of practical trigonometry, the definitions of the functions as quotients of the sides of a
right triangle are fully sufficient, and as this
it
method
is
ex-
be best suited for the begfnceedingly simple, the student has applied this knowledge tc After ner.
to
seems
many problems, and has acquired a thorough familiarity with these ratios, general definitions may be introduced.
The
practice of studying
is
two
sets of
definitions
si-
multaneously
decidedly unpedagogic. This Solution of the right triangle.
is
probably the
most important chapter in the entire elementary trigonometry, and a thorough knowledge of the same will
enable the student to solve the greater part of all practical problems that occur in secondary school courses.*
It is advisable to take
It
is,
up this subject early in the
course.
of course, absurd to subdivide the solution of
the right triangle into five cases, since all cases are solved by the same method, viz., the writing and solv-
ing of the equation which connects the two given parts and the required part. Thus, if we employ the usual
notation,
*
and
let
Z C= 90, we
in this time a fair
would
find b in
terms of
A student who can devote only 8 or

if it is
nometry may acquire

parts of the subject,
10 lessons to the study of trigoknowledge of the most practical largely devoted to the study of the right tri-
angle
and
its applications.
358
r,
and
by writing the equation which connects b%

:
c*
and A,
viz.
cos
A=c
= c cos A.
Such
triangles should at first be solved without the use
of logarithms, in order to
at a time,
overcome only one
difficulty
and to avoid the misconception that trigonometric work is absolutely connected with logarithms. At present, when the use of calculating machines is so
general, the solution of triangles without logarithms
is
more important than formerly.

After the solution of right triangles is thoroughly mastered, this method should be applied to practical
problems, as the finding of heights, distances, etc. It should also be applied to the solution of figures, which can be decomposed into right triangles, as the isosceles
triangle, the regular polygon, the oblique triangle, etc.
Quite complex figures

in
may
thus be attacked,
if
we
bear
mind
that in these cases a series of right triangles
has to be formed such that the solution of each makes

possible the solution of the next.
For
instance,
if in
AB
tude
or cy
Z A, and Z B
is
CD
required,
oblique triangle ABC, are given, and the altithe first right triangle
must necessarily contain the side c and one adjacent angle, e.g., Z A. Hence drop BEJLAC and solve A ABE. Thus we find BE = c sin A 9 which enables us to solve the adjacent A ECB*
Since
C=
C
180
- (A +
B),
it
follows that
BC =
'
sin
sin (180
- A - B)

Finally
359
we can
solve
A CDB,
resulting in the required value,
sin
(A
-f
B)
solve by means of right triangles the problem Similarly of finding the height of an object C above two points and /?, if A, B, and C lie in a verti-
we may
CD
cal plane
and angles
and distance known.
A and AB are
triangle
The
first
right
must necessarily contain AB and Z.A. Hence draw and find ABsiuB. Since ECA are now able to solve AAEC9 and we find
AE
AE=
=A-B we
9
ACsin
(A - B)
~ sin
{A - B)'
Finally &ACD produces
(sin
A-
B)
In problems of the preceding kind it is advisable to determine the final answer at first in algebraic form, and if numerical values are required to substitute numbers in the general answer. bers at the very beginning
The
is
substitution of
num-
the writing of
20
4'
it
16"
is
not only awkward, since more complex than the
writing of B, but
calculations.
frequently involves unnecessary Thus, in the preceding problem the find-
ing of the numerical values of

sary.
AE
and ^fCis unneces-
Another illustration of the method of solving complex figures by means of a chain of right triangles is the analysis of the addition
theorem
:
sin (x
+y) =
sin
x cos y -f cos x sin jr.
To
find sin
(x+y) we may
i,
represent this quantity
by a
line, i.e+
we may make OC unknown line, while
and draw
is
CD _L OA,
then
CD
OC
the only given line.
represents the In regard to the

in
angles
we must bear
mind
that
we
are dealing not with given angles themselves, but with angles whose
functions are given.

first triangle must contain and the only adjacent angle whose functions are known, viz., y. Hence, drop CE JL OB. The right
The
OC
triangle
{
OCE produces the CE= sin/, and OE cos/.

we have
values
Before
proceeding,
to survey the
diagram and determine all angles whose functions are known (comSuch angles are CFB - OFD = 90 xy and pare Chapter XI). Z. FCE = 90 - Z CFB = x. To construct a right triangle which contains CE, we must associate this line with
Z FCE, which
is
draw
sin
EH CD and
JL
"
find the values
the only adjacent angle. Hence, - cos x sin and y
CH
EH
must be associated with Z*", OA, and determine the values of OG and "(7. *>., we drop Obviously the required line CD equals CH + EG, which leads to
Similarly the line
x cos/.
OE
the required equation.* * A very short proof of the addition theorem majTbe based upon the
fact that the sides of
A ABC
may
be represented in the form BC d sin A, CA = d sin B, and AB rfsinC = rfsin (A B). Drawing CD JL AB, we have
AB = BD + DA,
or d sin (A B) -h d cos ^4 sin B.
/.
<*
sin
cos
JB
sin
(A -f 5)
sin
cos
cos
sin B.
In a similar manner the next dia-
gram produces
sin
(A
B).

While Expressing one function in terms of another. done by means of the fundamental frequently
this is
formulae which connect the functions, a more practical way is based upon the right triangle, as illustrated in
It is true that the results thus the following examples. obtained relate directly only to angles less than 90, but the proper modification of the sign makes the results
applicable to
Ex.
equals
I.
all
quadrants.
Given
given
sin
A=
},
required
all
other functions of A.
4,
If in right triangle
ABC, we make
the
Therefore, ail tion of the diagram
angle. functions can be determined by inspec.
BC - 3, and AB Obviously AC = \ j'
then
/f
Ex.
2.
Given ten A
=
2,
2,
required
all
other func-
tions of
A. Here we make
BC A
and
AC -
i.
Then
AB
A.
= v/5, and all functions can be read from the

Ex.
3.
diagram.
Given sec
~, #
find the other functions of
Here
AB = m, AC=n,
4.
and hence
BC - Vm* A=
B
n\
Make
Ex.
Given esc
A = m,
required cos A.
i,
AB
BC =
I.
Hence
AC = Vm*
and cos
COT A
C
A.
Ex.
Let
all
5.
Express
cot
all
functions in terms of cot
and BC = i. Then AB = Vcota A other functions may be determined by inspection.
AC =
I,
and
362
Methods for proving identities. The simplest method for demonstrating trigonometric identities involving only one angle reduces them to identities involving the three
of a right triangle, which latter identities are proved by the usual algebraic method. This method is often lengthy, but quite easy for the beginner.
sides
Thus
to prove that
cos
A
b
sin
we
express the functions involved as quotients of lines,
a
c
,
77? c
a
C
-f
*
,
~
c
c
= 2*
This
is
true
if
+
a
2
2 c
b
c*
This
s true
cb.
u
This
is
a
But the
last
a2
+ +
2 cb
b*
2 r
true if
equation
is true,
hence the given identity
is
proved.
All
fundamental formulae which connect trigono-
metric functions, as sin 2

etc.,
-f
cos 2
A=
sm
I,
COS
,
-r4
= tan A.
may be proved by this method. The preceding method may be simplified by making
one of the sides of the right triangle equal to unity, usually that one which occurs frequently in the denominator.
Thus
identity
in the preceding
example we would make c
I.
Then
the
would mean
a
i
+ a _2
a
+
a*
a
I.
Which
easily reduces to
363
A method which usually

and
all
leads to
much
shorter proofs,
but which requires a little more skill, expresses all functions involved in terms of two functions (usually sine
does not lead to a demonstration, functions are expressed in terms of one function.
cosine).
If this
:
In the above example, this method produces

sin
I
A A
i
,
-f
cos
A_
= A=
2
sin
cos
sin
A
A)*
2
or
or
sin 2
4- (i
cos
2 (i
i.
4-
cos
A) 9
sin
-f
cos
If the functions involved are not all functions of the
same angle A, but some are functions

3
of
or 2 A, or
etc.,
all
functions have at
first
to
be reduced to
functions of one angle.
Thus
to
prove
2 sin x
+ sin 2 x
I
2 sm8;r
COS X
sin 2
i.e.,
x must
be expressed in terms of functions of x>
substitute 2 sin x cos x for sin2;r, thereby reducing the problem to one of the preceding kind.
we must
Similarly to prove that
tan 2
+ cot "^ = 2csc.r, 2

- and
2
we must
cot
either express csc^r in terms of -, or tan
^
2
in
terms of x.
Functions of angles greater than 90. the functions of angles greater than 90
To
in
express terms of
3 64
functions of angles less than 90, usually a large ber of formulae are memorized.
If
num-
is usually supa counter-clockwise rotation, posed to be generated by and that hence OB is the terminal radius, and if we
we remember
that an angle
AOB
X'
denote
XX
we may
the produced initial radius, as .r-axis, reduce all functions by the following theorem
,
i.e.,
A function
of
acute angle formed
the same function any angle = terminal radius and jr-axis. by
of the
The sign here does not indicate that both signs has to be selected. The or are true, but that either
selection
POSITIVE FUNCTIONS
of
the
sign
is
made
according to the annexed diagram, which gives the positive functions

quadrant. All other functions are negative. Since the
for
positive functions of each quad-
each
rant are reciprocals of each other,

it is
only necessary to
remember
positive:
in
that the following functions are quadrant II, the sine; in quadrant III,
the tangent; and in quadrant IV, the cosine.*

* Even these three parts need not be memorized if the student has a dear conception of the representation of functions by single lines.
365
Thus to reduce cos 245, we consider that an angle of 245 lies in quadrant III, and that hence the cosine is negative. Since the acute angle formed by terminal radius and .r-axis is 65, it follows that
cos 245
cos 65.
Inverse trigonometric functions. Inverse trigonometric functions are of comparatively small importance to the The understanding of students of secondary schools.
the meaning and the use of symbols like sin" 1 m, tan"" 1 n* " etc., is increased by reading them always as angles." Thus read
sin"1 1 as "the angle
whose
sine
."
tan"
as "the angle
whose tangent
= x"
of the sim-
This
will
enable the student to solve
many
pler problems without any special method, e.g., the find1 1 ing of the following expressions: sin"" ^, cos"" ! A/3,
sin (tan"" 1
i),
sec (tan" 1
n\
etc.
it is
For more complex
cases,
advisable to introduce
is
a symbol for the angle whose function
represented.
Thus
let
to find
tan (2
tan"" 1
;/
/*),
(i) (2)
then
Therefore
tan
= A, tan A = n. = tan 2 A (2 tan" n) 2 tan A

tan- 1
1
*The symbol
(sin
sin~ l*
is
rather
unfortunate, since
it
may mean
m)~
l
.
366
Line (2)
is
typical for the substitutions that
have to
us find
be made in such examples.
To
illustrate
examples involving two angles,

tan
sin"" 1-^-
let
+ tan" 1 -).
3/
\
sin"" 1
V$
then sin
Let
= A,
2?,
A=
-,
Vs
and tan" 1 - =
3
Vs
then tan
^ = i.
3
(^4 +^ff)
in- 1 -~= 4- tan
Vs
-^J=tan
3/
tan ^4
-f-
tan
tain
tan
But since
sin
A = -~r,
tan
A~\
I
hence
tan
(A+B) = 2* t - x
2
theorem has to be proved, simplify one or both members. Thus to prove that sin (sin" 1 4- sin"^^
If a
.**
x^J \
above.
y* + y Vi
x* simplify sin
of
(sin""
^ +sin~^/) as
If both
members
an identity are inverse trigono-
367
metric functions, take the tangent (or other function) of
both members.
Thus
to prove
tan- 1 2
tan' 1 2
54 +
\4
= TL
tan" 1 -?19
take the tangent of both members, or prove that

tan
tan- 1
\
+
4
tair 1
= tan - + tair -.
1
19)
Both members simplified produce the result \\.

the identity
is true.
Hence
INDEX
Accuracy, 20.
Addition, 307.
Directed
lines, 169, 208.
Dogmatic method, 41-43, 80-ga, 188.

Drawing, rules
for,
Aims
of
mathematical teaching, 15-19.
275.
Algebra, 288-352.
Analysis, algebraic, 254-256. geometric, 228-244.
Drawing
exercises, 82.
Drawings, 269.
Empirical doctrine, 51. Equations, 324-331. Equivalent equations, 326.
Error, common, 103. Euclid's postulate, 52.
Analytic method, 30-36. Angle, 70, 77-80, 85. Angles, constructive, 265. Attacking problems, 217-256, theorems, 30-36, 101, 115, 127, 135, 138, 143, 156, I73-I79, 198-199,
207.
Axioms, 50, 51, 56.

Certainty of mathematics, 20. Checks, 306. Circle, 180-187. Circumference, 180,
division of,
Colors, use of,
Examinations, 324-331. Exception, law of no, 312. Exercise, original, 98^112. Extemporizing problems, 104.
Factoring, 314-324. Formulae, use of, 209, 266.
261265.
1
Foundations of mathematics, 506$* Functions, graph of, 334, 338.
10.
Fundamental laws, 59-62.

Genus, 67. Geometry, 88-278. solid, 266-268. Graphic methods, no, Graphs, 332-343Heuristic method, 44.
Complex numbers, 346.

Computations, 286, 355.
Concentration, 26. Constructible angles, 265. Construction of exercises,
115, 202, 214.
ux.
104,
105,
Constructions, simple, 156. Continuity, principle of, 186. Converses, 143147.
Hypothesis, 132. Hypothetical constructions, 153.

Identities, 324, 362.
law
of,
146,
Corollaries, 211. Courses of study, 7. Cross- section paper, 272. Curriculum, in algebra, 288-301.
Imaginary numbers, 346-348.

Impossible constructions,
25735^
in trigonometry, 3,54-355-
Independent parts, 227. Inductive method, 37-41.

sequence, 39. Inefficiency of teaching,
Interest, 85, 93.
Deductive method, 37-41.

Definitions, 66-87, 140, 356. introductory, 75. Differentia, 67.
114.
Inventive faculty, 27. Inverse functions, 365.

Irrational numbers, 344. Isosceles triangle, 152.
Disciplinary value, i&~ag, Discipline, denial of, 24.
369
370
Laboratory method, 47-49.
of converses, 146.
INDEX
Psychological method, 41-43. Pythagorean theorem, 206.
Ratio, 197. Rational doctrine, 51.
Law,
of
no exception, 3x2.
Lecture method, 43. Limits, 188-196.

Line, 69, 76. Loci, 217-225.
Reasoning, 10, 18,
19, 29, 209.
Logarithm, 349-352.
Redundancy, Riemann, 54.

Rigor, 43, 89.
67.
Memorizing, 10, 45. Metageometry, 57.
Rotation about point, 165, 241.

line, 164, 243.
Methods
of teaching, 30-49.
Metrical relations, 206-214. Models, 268.

Multiplication, 309. and rotation, 251. of curves, 247.
Short cuts, 296. Signs of aggregation, 309.

Similarity,
method
of,
245.
Similitude, 247. Simplicity of mathematics, 19. Slide rule, 330, 352-
Negative numbers, 302. Non-Euclidean geometry, 52-59.
Socratic method, 44. Solid geometry, 266-278.
Numbers, 344. Numerical substitution, 304.

Originality, 21.
Sources of applied problems, 284-287 Subtraction, 308. Superposition, 113. Surface, 71, 76.
Symbols, 129, 130.

Parallel lines, 140-151. Perspective, 270.
Theory, reduction
Photos, 269. Plane, 71. Polygons, 167. regular, 261-265.

Postulate, Euclid's, 52. Preliminary proposition, 88-97.
Principle, fundamental, 29. Problems, attacking, 217-256.
of, 295. Translation, 164, 239. Triangles, construction of, 226.
equality
of,
113-139.
right, 226.
Trigonometry, 353-367. Trimetric paper, 273, 274.
Unequal
lines,
I
angles, 159-166.
156-166.
Projection, 86, 212, 213, 272. Proportion, 197.
Vertical angles, 97, 105.
Printed in the United States of America.

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w ir m<OU_1 66373

THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

CO., LIMITED BOMBAY CALCUTTA MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

TEE UNITED WAXES OF AMERICA

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

consisted largely of a concrete discussion of the prob-

chief object of this

making mathematical teaching

Most teachers admit

matical instruction derives

importance from the men-

external conditions over which the teacher has no control,

but partly also to the fact that a number of teach-

This book covers a

stricted field, but does

in the sense that

make mathematical and tries to show how

to train students in attacking

advocates certain recent fashions which

tions of doubtful value.

the author does not believe that the true value of

hence cannot admit that the mensuration of parquet

window designs forms the

a rapid survey of the purely pedagogic matters

Like any other pedagogic book,

the latter only would

careful reading of the proofs

CAUSES OF THE INEFFICIENCY OF MATHEMATICAL TEACHING

. Shortcomings of our schools Causes of the inefficiency of our schools

overrating of spectacular results

Congested courses of study Two ways of studying Schools encourage memorizing

....... ....... .... .... ........ ...... ........

upon mathematical teach13

CHAPTER II THE VALUE AND THE AIMS OF MATHEMATICAL

disciplinary value of mathematics

.17 .18 .18

reasoning mental discipline

Minor functions of mathematical study

METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS

and the analytic methods Description of methods

inductive aad the deductive methods

Facts discovered by induction Deductive and inductive sequence

Value of the two methods

CHAPTER IV THE FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

Non-Euclidean geometry and the axioms

Lobatschewsky's geometry Riemann's geometry

Modern views of geometric axioms Summary of consequences

Comparison of the two views

Pedagogic aspect of definitions

an explanation Familiarity with technical terms

teaching of the introductory definition General remarks

Laboratory exercises Further illustrations of teaching definitions

Angles formed by parallels

THE FIRST PROPOSITIONS IN GEOMETRY

Usual mode of presentation

upon the student

upon mode of study Importance of proper initiation

Rational methods of presentation

THE ORIGINAL EXERCISE IN GEOMETRY

Importance of the exercise