Figura 01; Figura 02

Descrio clnica Com a ave em decbito dorsal, as paredes do trio direito e o ventrculo so posicionados na parte superior. Aps a morte, os trios, muitas vezes expandir-se com sangue e pode aparecer bastante alargada. Os vasos grandes pode ser visto entrando na base do corao. O msculo do corao deve ser marrom-avermelhada na cor. Uma quantidade varivel de gordura estar presente nas ranhuras coronrias. Se o pssaro est abatido, essa gordura pode estar ausente ou sofreram atrofia serosa, resultando em uma aparncia gelatinosa molhado. Olhar para quaisquer leses externas sobre a superfcie do epicrdico do corao ou na gordura circundante.

Figura 03 Descrio clnica O msculo do corao deve ser marrom-avermelhada na cor. Uma quantidade varivel de gordura estar presente nas ranhuras coronrias. Se o pssaro est abatido, essa gordura pode estar ausente ou sofreram atrofia serosa, resultando em uma aparnciagelatinosa molhado. Olhar para quaisquer leses externas sobre a superfcie do epicrdio do corao ou na gordura circundante. Figura 04

Descrio clnica

Ver do lado esquerdo do corao.

Figura 05

Descrio clnica Vista do pice do corao.

Figura 06

Descrio clnica A parte inferior 1/3 do pice do corao foi removido. Este ponto de vista permite que a espessura das paredes ventriculares e septo de ser avaliada. A parede do ventrculo direito livre deve ser aproximadamente 1/3 a 1/2 a espessura do septo intraventricular eda parede ventricular esquerda livre. No corao normal, o lmen dos ventrculos deve ser pequena e no deve haver espao insignificante entre as paredes do ventriculae eo septo. Nas doenas cardacas, como hipertenso pulmonar ou defeitos congnitos, este espao ser ampliado.

Figura 07

Descrio clnica Nesta perspectiva, as cmaras do trio direito eo ventrculo foram abertas por meio de corte at a parede livre do ventrculo direito. Uma vez aberta, a vlvula atrioventriculardireita e endocrdio so expostos. A folha septal da valva direita normalmente muito musculoso.

Figura 08

Descrio clnica Nesta perspectiva, as cmaras do trio esquerdo e o ventrculo foram abertas por meio de corte at a parede livre do ventrculo esquerdo. A valva atrioventricular esquerda geralmente fina e lisa.

Figura 09

Descrio clnica A aorta foi aberta atravs da insero de tesoura sob a valva atrioventricular esquerdae corte para cima. O lmen normal da aorta, como visto aqui, branco cremoso e os folhetos da vlvula artica so uniformes e muito finas.

Figura 10

Descrio clnica O fgado separado em um lobo direito e esquerdo, conforme visto aqui, ligado na base. O lobo heptico direito

ligeiramente maior que o esquerdo e as margens hepticas devem chegar a uma borda fina crocante.

11

Clinical Description

In domestic birds, the left lobe has a fissure running along its surface, dividing it into 2 parts.

12

Clinical Description

The liver is separated into a right and left lobe, as seen here, attached at the base. The right hepatic lobe is slightly larger than the left and the liver margins should come to a thin crisp edge.

13

Clinical Description

The overall size of the liver is variable, often extending beyond the edge of the sternum. To identify hepatomegaly, look at the

liver margins. Blunted or thickened margins are a sign of an enlarged liver. 14

Clinical Description

Healthy hepatic parenchyma should be somewhat firm on palpation and have a smooth and glistening appearance. The color of the liver can vary depending on the nutritional state of the bird. Generally, the liver is reddish-brown but it can be light brown or even slightly yellow, depending on the fat content in the diet. However, a very yellow liver is an abnormal finding, except in chicks between 1 to 5 days of age.

15

Clinical Description

Healthy hepatic parenchyma should be somewhat firm on palpation and have a smooth and glistening appearance. The color of the liver can vary depending on the nutritional state of the bird. Generally, the liver is reddish-brown but it can be light brown or even slightly yellow, depending on the fat content in the diet. However, a very yellow liver is an abnormal finding, except in chicks between 1 to 5 days of age.

16

Clinical Description

The gallbladder is located on the visceral surface of the right hepatic lobe. It is normally dark green in color, due to the bile located within the lumen of this thin-walled structure. During autolysis, bile pigments may leak out of the gallbladder, staining the adjacent hepatic tissues yellow to green. This bile inbibition is a normal part of autolysis and should not be confused with a lesion. Similar staining can also occur in the ascending duodenum, adjacent to the area where the bile and pancreatic ducts empty. The size of the gallbladder is variable and may be enlarged in birds that are off-feed.

17

Clinical Description

The gallbladder is located on the visceral surface of the right hepatic lobe. It is normally dark green in color, due to the bile located within the lumen of this thin-walled structure. During autolysis, bile pigments may leak out of the gallbladder, staining the adjacent hepatic tissues yellow to green. This bile inbibition is a normal part of autolysis and should not be confused with a lesion. Similar staining can also occur in the ascending duodenum, adjacent to the area where the bile and pancreatic ducts empty. The size of the gallbladder is variable and may be enlarged in birds that are off-feed.

18

Clinical Description

View of the liver on cross section. As seen here, the color and texture should be uniform. Focal or regional changes may indicate a lesion. Its normal for a small amount of blood to ooze from the cut surface of the liver

19 Clinical Description

The lungs are tightly adhered to the dorsal rib cage. Their color should be bright pink in a fresh bird but will become increasinly more congested, wet, and dark red with autolysis, as seen here. To assess the lungs, do not over-interpret their color but rather, use a combination of visual inspection and palpation to assess the health of this tissue.

20

Clinical Description

The air sacs are thin membranes distributed throughout the body. In a fresh healthy bird, air sacs should be transparent but, as seen here, the membranes will become slightly cloudy after

death. In over-conditioned birds, fat may be present on the air sac membranes. Inflammation of the air sacs can result in thickened membranes, opacities, or fibrin deposition. Fluid, foam, or exudate can accumulate between the air sac membranes. 21

Clinical Description

The proventriculus is the glandular stomach that lies between the esophagus and the gizzard. It is lined with mucosal glands that secrete digestive enzymes important in food break down. On close inspection, these glands can be seen through the serosal surface, giving it a honeycomb-like texture. On palpation the proventriculus should feel turgid and, its surface should be shiny tan. Look for abnormalities such as hemorrhagic lesions or neoplastic infiltrates on its surface

22

Clinical Description

The serosa of the proventriculus is normally shiny, tan, and has a fine vascular pattern. In a fresh bird, on close inspection, the glands can be visualized through the mucosa. The muscular wall of the proventriculus should feel uniformly turgid. Flaccidity or dilatation of the organ might indicate an improper diet or feeding program, infection, or neuromuscular dysfunction.

The external features of the ventriculus, or gizzard, should consist of alternating bands of dark red and light red smooth muscles, forming a roughly circular shape. These muscles may be covered by a thick layer of fat, as seen here. On palpation, the gizzard should be extremely firm. Thinning or laxity in the muscles may indicate inflammation, an improper diet or feeding program, or neuromuscular problems.

23

Clinical Description

The proventriculus in situ.

24

Clinical Description

The serosa of the proventriculus is normally shiny, tan, and has a fine vascular pattern. In a fresh bird, on close inspection, the glands can be visualized through the mucosa. The muscular wall of the proventriculus should feel uniformly turgid. Flaccidity or dilatation of the organ might indicate an improper diet or feeding program, infection, or neuromuscular dysfunction.

The external features of the ventriculus, or gizzard, should consist of alternating bands of dark red and light red smooth muscles, forming a roughly circular shape. These muscles may be covered by a thick layer of fat. On palpation, the gizzard should be extremely firm. Thinning or laxity in the muscles may indicate inflammation, an improper diet or feeding program, or neuromuscular problems.

25

Clinical Description

View of the serosal surface of the proventriculus and gizzard (ventriculus).

26

Clinical Description

Close-up of the glands of the proventriculus as seen through the outer wall.

27

Clinical Description

View of the glands of the proventriculus as seen from the mucosal surface.

28 Clinical Description

Close-up view of the glands of the proventriculus as seen from the mucosal surface.

29 Clinical Description

The contents of the proventriculus can vary from mucoid and creamy to more formed pieces of ingesta, depending on how recently the bird ate.

30

Clinical Description

View of the serosal surface of the proventriculus and gizzard (ventriculus).

31 Clinical Description

The external features of the ventriculus, or gizzard, should consist of alternating bands of dark red and light red smooth muscles, forming a roughly circular shape. These muscles may be covered by a thick layer of fat, as seen here.

32 Clinical Description

View of the left side of the proventriculus and gizzard.

33 Clinical Description

The consistency of the gizzard contents will vary depending on the stage of digestion. Generally, it contains fibers and portions of seeds. Additionally, small pebbles, ingested to facilitate the break up of food, may also be present

34 Clinical Description

The mucosa of the gizzard is covered by a sturdy layer of protein called koilin, which aids in food digestion. The koilin layer should be smooth and uniform.

The color may vary from white, to yellow, to green depending on the diet and the degree of bile staining.

35 Clinical Description

Close-up view of the koilin layer of the gizzard (ventriculus).

36 Clinical Description

The spleen is located dorsal to the gizzard.

37 On very close inspection, the spleen as a slight stippled pattern.

38 On very close inspection, the spleen as a slight stippled pattern.

39 On very close inspection, the spleen as a slight stippled pattern.

40

View of the cut section of the spleen. On cross section, the spleen may appear slightly granular due to the variations in red and white pulp.

41 The duodenum has a descending and ascending loop, arranged in a U-shape. The loops are held together by a thin strip of mesentery and surround the pancreas. The appearance of the intestine can vary greatly depending on the post-mortem condition of the bird. In a fresh bird, the serosa of a healthy intestine is usually pink, smooth, and glistening. As the post-mortem interval increases, the intestinal walls will become congested, as seen here, and eventually, even a healthy loop of bowel may appear dark red. However, if the serosa has a dull granular appearance, this can be evidence of inflammation. The normal appearance of the pancreas is pale red or slightly yellow. On close inspection, its glandular nature is evident. Swelling of the pancreas can be recognized if the organ extends beyond its normal location between the loops of the duodenum.

42 The walls of the duodenum should be smooth and uniform and offer little resistance to incision. In the proximal duodenum, the ingesta is normally mucoid and pale tan to yellow. Distal to the bile ducts, the ingesta becomes more green in color.

43

The duodenum has a descending and ascending loop, arranged in a U-shape. The loops are held together by a thin strip of mesentery and surround the pancreas. The appearance of the intestine can vary greatly depending on the post-mortem condition of the bird. In a fresh bird, the serosa of a healthy intestine is usually pink, smooth, and glistening. As the post-mortem interval increases, the intestinal walls will become congested, as seen here, and eventually, even a healthy loop of bowel may appear dark red. However, if the serosa has a dull granular appearance, this can be evidence of inflammation. The normal appearance of the pancreas is pale red or slightly yellow. On close inspection, its glandular nature is evident. Swelling of the pancreas can be recognized if the organ extends beyond its normal location between the loops of the duodenum.

44 The duodenum has a descending and ascending loop, arranged in a U-shape. The loops are held together by a thin strip of mesentery and surround the pancreas. The appearance of the intestine can vary greatly depending on the post-mortem condition of the bird. In a fresh bird, the serosa of a healthy intestine is usually pink, smooth, and glistening. As the post-mortem interval increases, the intestinal walls will become congested, as seen here, and eventually, even a healthy loop of bowel may appear dark red. However, if the serosa has a dull granular appearance, this can be evidence of inflammation. The normal appearance of the pancreas is pale red or slightly yellow. On close inspection, its glandular nature is evident.

Swelling of the pancreas can be recognized if the organ extends beyond its normal location between the loops of the duodenum.

45 The normal appearance of the pancreas is pale red or slightly yellow. On close inspection, its glandular nature is evident. Swelling of the pancreas can be recognized if the organ extends beyond its normal location between the loops of the duodenum.

46 On close inspection, the pancreas has a fine glandular texture.

47 After 10 days of age, the only remnant of the yolk sac is a small tag of scar tissue, called Meckels diverticulum. This tag, located on the antimesenteric side of the intestine, contains lymphoid tissue and is part of the GALT, or Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue. Meckels diverticulum is also an important anatomical landmark, as it is located at the junction between the jejunum and the ileum. Being able to differentiate the jejunum from the ileum is important to generating differentials for intestinal diseases. Some infections, such as coccidiosis, have a predilection for the jejunum and other diseases target the ileum.

48

After 10 days of age, the only remnant of the yolk sac is a small tag of scar tissue, called Meckels diverticulum. This tag, located on the antimesenteric side of the intestine, contains lymphoid tissue and is part of the GALT, or Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue. Meckels diverticulum is also an important anatomical landmark, as it is located at the junction between the jejunum and the ileum. Being able to differentiate the jejunum from the ileum is important to generating differentials for intestinal diseases. Some infections, such as coccidiosis, have a predilection for the jejunum and other diseases target the ileum.

49 At the junction between the ileum and the descending colon, are two blind-ended sacs known as the ceca. In domestic poultry, the cecae are large structures that bend over themselves, with their apices pointing caudally. The walls should be thin and semi-translucent, allowing the greenishcolored intestinal contents to be visualized within. If the walls are opaque, thin or irregular, infection should be suspected.

50 At the junction between the ileum and the descending colon, are two blind-ended sacs known as the ceca. In domestic poultry, the cecae are large structures that bend over themselves, with their apices pointing caudally. The walls should be thin and semi-translucent, allowing the greenishcolored intestinal contents to be visualized within. If the walls are opaque, thin or irregular, infection should be suspected.

51

At the base of the ceca, near the junction of the ileum and the descending colon, are 2 important lymphoid structures called cecal tonsils. The tissue here bulges outward slightly as it is thicker and slightly more granular.

52 At the base of the ceca, near the junction of the ileum and the descending colon, are 2 important lymphoid structures called cecal tonsils. The tissue here bulges outward slightly as it is thicker and slightly more granular.

53 As demonstrated here, the cecal tonsils should be opened and the mucosa examined closely. This is a common location for lesions to be detected. In inflammatory or neoplastic diseases, the tonsils may be come enlarged and mottled red and tan. In some viral infections, the lymphoid tissue may become necrotic, causing the tonsils to become red.

54 The cecal tonsil has been opened to show the mucosa. Its important to examine this area closely for lesions. In inflammatory or neoplastic disease, the cecal tonsils may become enlarged and mottled red and tan. In some viral infections, this lymphoid tissue may become necrotic, causing the tonsils to become red.

55

As demonstrated here, the cecal tonsils should be opened and the mucosa examined closely. This is a common location for lesions to be detected. In inflammatory or neoplastic diseases, the tonsils may be come enlarged and mottled red and tan. In some viral infections, the lymphoid tissue may become necrotic, causing the tonsils to become red.

56 The serosa of the ileum should be shiny, tan, and smooth, with no thickening or bulges. Be careful not to over-interpret the color of the intestinal walls as post-mortem congestion and autolysis can quickly turn the intestinal walls red or black. Because the intestinal walls are semi-translucent, look for areas of proliferation or mucosal exudate which can sometimes be visualized through the intestinal wall. At the junction between the ileum and the descending colon, are two blind-ended sacs known as the ceca. In domestic poultry, the cecae are large structures that bend over themselves, with their apices pointing caudally. The walls should be thin and semi-translucent, allowing the greenishcolored intestinal contents to be visualized within. If the walls are opaque, thin or irregular, infection should be suspected.

57 The quality of intestinal ingesta can yield important clues about the functional status of the intestines. If the ingesta is normal, as seen here, regardless of the appearance of the intestinal wall, the intestines were likely functioning normal at the time of death. If the content is abnormal, intestinal dysfunction is present. Keep in mind that as the ingesta moves though the intestines, its color and consistency will change. In the jejunum,

pictured here, the ingesta becomes slightly thicker and yellow tan in color.

58 Distal to the ceca, the intestines continue as a short straight tube known as the descending colon. These walls should be smooth and uniform. Look for any dilatations which may indicate an obstruction due to a mechanical blockage, a scar, or another disease process.

59 The cloaca is the common chamber for the gastrointestinal, urinary, and reproductive tracts. Here the cloaca has been opened. By the time ingesta enters the cloaca, it should have the normal color and consistency of feces and will be mixed with urates from the urinary system.

60 On the dorsal wall of the cloaca is a diverticulum called the Bursa of Fabricius. This structure is an important lymphoid organ. The shape of the bursa varies with species. In the chicken, it is roughly pear shaped. In ducks, geese and turkeys it is more spindle shaped. The size varies with the age of the bird. It typically reaches its maximum size between 4 to 12 weeks of age, at which time it can weigh up to 4 grams. Normally, the bursa begins to involute when the bird is approximately 3 months of age. By the time the bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident on gross examination.

On the dorsal wall of the cloaca is a diverticulum called the Bursa of Fabricius. This structure is an important lymphoid organ. The shape of the bursa varies with species. In the chicken, it is roughly pear shaped. In ducks, geese and turkeys it is more spindle shaped. The size varies with the age of the bird. It typically reaches its maximum size between 4 to 12 weeks of age, at which time it can weigh up to 4 grams. Normally, the bursa begins to involute when the bird is approximately 3 months of age. By the time the bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident on gross examination.

62 On the dorsal wall of the cloaca is a diverticulum called the Bursa of Fabricius. This structure is an important lymphoid organ. The shape of the bursa varies with species. In the chicken, it is roughly pear shaped. In ducks, geese and turkeys it is more spindle shaped. The size varies with the age of the bird. It typically reaches its maximum size between 4 to 12 weeks of age, at which time it can weigh up to 4 grams. Normally, the bursa begins to involute when the bird is approximately 3 months of age. By the time the bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident on gross examination.

63 On the dorsal wall of the cloaca is a diverticulum called the Bursa of Fabricius.

This structure is an important lymphoid organ. The shape of the bursa varies with species. In the chicken, it is roughly pear shaped. In ducks, geese and turkeys it is more spindle shaped. The size varies with the age of the bird. It typically reaches its maximum size between 4 to 12 weeks of age, at which time it can weigh up to 4 grams. Normally, the bursa begins to involute when the bird is approximately 3 months of age. By the time the bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident on gross examination.

64 The bursa of Fabricius has been opened to show its mucosal surface. The normal mucosa consists of many folds of tissue, which are pale white to pink or tan and slightly firm on palpation.

65 The vent, located just beneath the tail, is the external orifice of the urinary, genital and gastrointestinal systems. The normal vent is free of fecal and urate staining, swelling, redness, or evidence of trauma.

66 This image shows the normal ovary of a sexually immature female, approximately 10 weeks of age. Here, the ovary is small and inactive.

67

View of the dorsal aspect of the ribs. Note that the ventral ribs have been removed from the field.

68 The kidneys consist of a right and left chain, with each chain being made up of 3 lobes. The lobes are tightly embedded in the bone of the synsacrum. They are normally red to dark mahogany brown in color and have a slightly granular texture.

69 This image shows a detailed view of the normal texture of the kidneys.

70 The nerves should have a creamy-white color and a slightly striated texture on close inspection. This image shows a normal ishiadic plexus in the caudal coelomic cavity.

71 The thyroid glands should be smooth, oval, and reddish-brown in color. On very close inspection, the thyroid glands have a very fine granular appearance.

72 A properly formed beak, shown here, is bilaterally symmetrical and the upper and lower halves should form a smooth line where they articulate.

73 A properly formed beak is bilaterally symmetrical and the upper and lower halves should form a smooth line where they articulate. Nutritional imbalances may result in beak malformations. The color of the beak depends on the birds coloration, with lighter birds typically having yellow beaks. However, beak color can also be influenced by physiologic factors. For example, yellow pigment in the beak may be lost as the chicken produces more eggs.

74 The oropharynx should be examined for any lesions. Note that birds do not have a soft palate or a discrete boundary between the oral cavity and the pharynx. The color of the oral mucosa will vary with lighter birds tending to have a pink mucosa while darker birds will have more pigment. Look for ulcers, erosions, opacities, diptheritic nodules, or other lesions.

75 A birds tongue is supported by the hyobranchial apparatus, making it somewhat inflexible.

76 The color of the oral mucosa will vary with the overall coloration of the bird. However, the mucosa should be free of ulcers, erosions, opacities, diptheritic nodules, and other lesions.

77

The dorsal surface of the chicken tongue should be smooth and pink. There is a row of large papillae near the caudal attachment of the tongue. Inspect the tongue for any lesions such as ulcers or nodules.

78 The dorsal surface of the chickens tongue is smooth and there is a row of large papillae near the caudal attachment. When inspecting the tongue, look for ulcers and erosions.

79 On the roof of the oropharynx is a fissure, called the choana, which opens into the nasal cavity. Inspect the area around the choana for ulcers. The choana is also a good place to find respiratory exudate. Birds do not form liquid pus and inspusated exudate tends to accumulate in the choanal orifice. If exudate is present, you can collect a swab sample from the choana. The choana is surrounded by ridges and rows of sharp welldemarcated papillae that point caudally. A variety of diseases can damage the papillae, resulting in blunting.

80 Just caudal to the choana is the infundibular cleft. This is the opening to the Eustachian tube and it is surrounded by ridges and rows of sharp well-demarcated papilla that point caudally.

81

The tongue, esophagus, and trachea have been removed as one unit. This view allows the structures of the structures of the caudal oral cavity and pharynx to be examined more closely.

82 The tongue, esophagus, and trachea have been removed as one unit. This view allows the structures of the caudal oral cavity and pharynx to be examined more closely.

83 The esophagus runs down the length of the neck and, in domestic species, is interrupted by a diverticulum called the crop. The esophagus continues down the neck and empties into the proventriculus. The esophagus and crop are thin-walled and located just below the skin. Their outer surfaces should be pale tan and smooth.

84 The esophagus runs down the length of the neck and, in domestic species, is interrupted by a diverticulum called the crop. The esophagus continues down the neck and empties into the proventriculus. The esophagus and crop are thin-walled and located just below the skin. Their outer surfaces should be pale tan and smooth.

85 The mucosal surface of the esophagus should be smooth and glistening.

The cranial portion contains many glands and the caudal portion has numerous longitudinal folds. The color along the entire length should be pale tan to pink. The presence of proliferative lesions may indicate a viral infection or a dietary imbalance. You can gently wash away any food material from the walls of the crop with some water but do not scrape the mucosa. Food material should wash away easily while fibrin and exudate will stick to the mucosa. Look for ulcers and erosions, which appear as red or pale depressions in the mucosa.

86 The caudal portion of the normal esophagus has numerous longitudinal folds, as seen here.

87 You can gently wash away any food material from the walls of the crop with some water but do not scrape the mucosa. Food material should wash away easily while fibrin and exudate will stick to the mucosa. Look for ulcers and erosions, which appear as red or pale depressions in the mucosa.

88 You can gently wash away any food material from the walls of the crop with some water but do not scrape the mucosa. Food material should wash away easily while fibrin and exudate will stick to the mucosa. Look for ulcers and erosions, which appear as red or pale depressions in the mucosa.

89 The trachea should be uniform in color, ranging from pale pink to tan or white and the external surface should be smooth. Upper respiratory disease may produce tracheal lesions that are sometimes visible on the outer surface. Look for discoloration, nodules, or irregularities in the tracheal cartilages.

90 The trachea is a thin tube completely encircled by small cartilagenous rings. The trachea should be uniform in color, ranging from pale tan to white and the external surface should be smooth. Look for discoloration, nodules, or irregularities in the tracheal cartilages.

91 The trachea is a thin tube completely encircled by cartilagenous rings. The trachea should be uniform in color, ranging from pale pink to tan or white and the external surface should be smooth. Upper respiratory disease may produce tracheal lesions that are sometimes visible on the outer surface. Look for discoloration, nodules, or irregularities in the tracheal cartilages.

92 At the terminal end of the trachea lies the syrinx, a flattened area at the junction of the trachea and the primary bronchi. The syrinx is responsible for generating vocal sounds.

93

Since the diameter of the syrinx is significantly smaller than that of the trachea, examine this area closely for occlusions caused by exudate, fungal mats, or parasites.

94 Since the diameter of the syrinx is significantly smaller than that of the trachea, examine this area closely for occlusions caused by exudate, fungal mats, or parasites.

95 View of the inside lumen of the trachea.

96 The left jugular vein of the bird, seen here, is much larger than the right.

97 The left jugular vein of the bird, seen here, is much larger than the left. The vagal and glossopharyngeal nerves are closely associated with the veins.

98 The vagal and glossopharyngeal nerves run parallel with the jugular veins.

99

The thyroid glands are located on each side of the neck, medial to the jugular vein and cranial to the origin of the subclavian and common carotid arteries.

100 The glands should be smooth, oval, and reddish-brown in color. On very close inspection, the thyroid glands have a very fine granular appearance.

101 Just caudal to the thyroid glands are the small pale pink parathyroid glands. The right parathyroid gland, seen here, lies directly adjacent to the right thyroid gland. The left parathyroid gland is slightly separated from the left thyroid gland.

102 The thymus is a bilateral chain of structures, located in the lateral neck region. each side is composed of 4 to 7 lobes. In chickens less than 17 weeks of age, the thymus should be visible but normally regresses around the time of sexual maturity.

103 The lobes of the thymus, normally present only in immature birds, are pale tan to pink in color.

104 The avian brain has a smooth surface, with no gyri or sulci. Its cortex should appear smooth and glistening and the right and left sides should be symmetrical.

105 This image shows a detailed view of the surface of the normal cerebrum.

106 The 3 muscles involved in flight in the bird, called the pectoral muscles, lie on either side of the keel bone. These muscles are very large, making them ideal for body muscle assessment. The muscles should be smooth and have a relatively uniform texture.

107 The pectoral muscles can be removed from the keel and ribs in order to examine them more closely. Look for areas of necrosis, inflammation, or hemorrhage.

108 With the muscles removed, look for areas of necrosis, inflammation, or hemorrhage. A series of parallel cuts through the muscle bellies can facilitate this assessment.

109

The eyelids should be free of swelling or exudate from ocular discharge.

110 The eyelids should be free of swelling or exudate from ocular discharge.

111 The cornea should be clear and convex and the sclera white. Iris color will vary with the breed and color of the bird however, look for abnormalities of the iris such as redness, anterior synechia, or exudate in the anterior chamber. The shape of the iris and pupil should be uniform and round.

112 The conjunctiva is a mucous membrane. It should be light pink in color and free of any redness, swelling, or exudate.

113 The eye has been removed from the skull showing the full extent of the orbit.

114 The ears in the bird are simple ostea, with no external pinna. The openings should be free of swelling, exudate, or other material.

115 The comb and wattles are outgrowths of skin that are highly vascularized, making them a useful way to assess the bird's overall health. They are normally bright red but their color will quickly fade after death. However, they should remain firm and uniform on palpation. look for abnormalities such as edema, petechiae, necrosis, cyanosis, papules and ulcers.

116 The infraorbital sinuses are triangular-shaped cavities, located rostroventral to the eyes. The sinuses are air-filled lumens, with one opening into the nasal cavity and the other into the caudal nasal cavity.

117 As seen here, the legs bones of the should be straight and symmetrical.

118 The leg bones should be straight and symmetrical. Palpate the bones for fractures and calluses and the joints for swelling or effusion. Flex and extend all the joints to assess range of motion, keeping in mind the effects of rigor mortis.

119 The skin on the limbs is covered by scales that are normally dry, flat, and slightly overlapping. Some parasites live beneath

the scales of the legs. Some infectious diseases can cause keratinous outgrowths from this skin.

120 The skin on the limbs is covered by scales that are normally dry, flat, and slightly overlapping. Some parasites live beneath the scales of the legs. Some infectious diseases can cause keratinous outgrowths from this skin.

121 Digital pads cover the plantar surface of the birds feet. These pads are composed of thick skin and adipose tissue. In the center of the foot, there is a large central metatarsal pad. The pads should be soft, free of scabs, swellings, edema, hemorrhages, or other lesions.

122 In the center of the foot, there is a large central metatarsal pad. The pads should be soft, free of scabs, swellings, edema, hemorrhages, or other lesions.

123 In birds housed on the floor, claws will normally come to a blunt tapered end, as seen here. Claws may be somewhat sharper in birds housed in cages. Curling or fraying claws are abnormal findings.

124

Birds have several types of feathers distributed across various regions of their body including down, body feathers, and flight feathers. Look for abnormalities in feather conformation such as warping or malformed barbs and barbules. Make note of any body regions that are missing feathers. Feathers are normally distributed along tracks on the body, called pterylae. These tracks are interspersed with featherless tracts called apteria. Keep in mind, that not all feather loss is abnormal. Seasonal feather molting is a normal physiologic process. Additionally, females who are incubating eggs may have an area on their abdomen lacking feathers, called the brood patch. In non-pathologic feather loss, the skin will appear healthy. In cases of pathologic feather loss, such as excessive feather picking by the bird, or its cage mates, the skin will be traumatized.

125 This image shows a typical down feather.

126 The skin in the chicken is normally very thin and the amount of pigment varies from pink to black, depending on the coloration of the bird. The skin should be free of exudate and have little or no scale. Look for any lesions or evidence of ectoparasites.

127 Feathers are normally distributed along tracks on the body, known as pterylae, seen here. These tracks are interspersed with featherless areas called apteria. Patches of feather loss may be due to normal physiologic processes, such as seasonal

molting. Pathologic feather loss can result from trauma and infection and is associated with skin lesions.

128 Pay attention to the feather sheath, the area where the feather emerges from the follicle. Swelling in this location can be indicative of several types of infection.

129 Pay attention to the feather sheath, the area where the feather emerges from the follicle. Swelling in this location can be indicative of several types of infection.

130 The uropygial, or preen gland, is located dorsal to the base of the tail. This cutaneous gland secretes an oily substance that birds spread over their feathers during preening. These secretions help maintain normal healthy feathers.

131 The body of the gland is located subcutaneously and its two lobes can sometimes be visualized beneath the skin, as seen here. The glands duct exits externally through a small papilla. Infected glands may result in swelling and reddening of the surrounding skin.

132

Cartilage should be smooth, shiny, and white with a slightly blue tinge, as seen here. Look for degenerative changes and roughed, discolored areas.

133 In a young bird, cut the long bone of the leg lengthwise to examine the epiphysis. Nutrient or mineral deficiencies can lead to poor mineralization of the bone. Look for widening of the epiphyseal plate or generalized hypoplasia of the bone.