JOS PLATEAU VOLCANIC DEPOSITS AS SUSTAINABLE CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS FOR PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF PORTLAND CEMENT IN CONCRETE MIXTURES.

Danjuma W. Dadu.
Department of Building, Faculty of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University, Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria, wurim2004@yahoo.co.uk ,Mobile +2348033142306. The costs of concrete mixtures are high in Nigeria. This is due to soaring prices of Portland cement (PC) in the country. There is a need therefore to reduce the PC contents in the concrete mixtures by its partial replacements with Sustainable Cementitious Materials of volcanogenic origins (natural pozzolanas). These materials are environment friendly (no CO2 emissions) and are economical as little or no energy inputs are required prior to their applications. The compressive strengths tests of concretes with 15% partial replacements of the PC with the pozzolan indicated that the Portland Pozzolana Cement concrete mixtures gave Pozzolanic Activity Index varying from 90 to 99%. The Moisture Contents of 90 % of the samples tested were 0.10 to 2.30% by weight. It is thus, concluded that the Jos Plateau volcanic deposits possessed Pozzolanic Characteristics and are thus potential cementitious materials for partial replacements of the PC in concrete mixtures. Key words: Natural Pozzolanas; Sustainable Cementitious Material; Partial Replacements; Pozzolanic Activity.

INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the most commonly used construction materials for housing and other physical infrastructures worldwide. This is due to its outstanding strength, durability, availability of the raw materials and its ease to produce to any and forms and at cheaper costs than other building materials. Thus, Concrete is a material of preference in housing other construction activities. The essential constituent for the production of this material is cement. A growing economy such as Nigerian needs enormous amount of cement as a building material for its housing and other infrastructural developments. Oluwakiyesi (2011) stated that Nigeria requires about 224 million tons of cement for its estimated housing deficits of between 16 and 18 million housing units. But there is a shortage of cement as a building material in the country. This is as a result of a wide gap that exists between production capacity of the Local Cement manufacturing firms and the high demand of the commodity, such that Nigeria imports about 60% of its cement demands to meet up these shortfalls (Fiakpa, 2008). Consequently the costs of concretes and other cement products are high. These cements deficits can be palliated by the utilisation of Jos Plateau Volcanic Deposits for partial replacements of the ordinary Portland cement in concrete mixes. It has been established by Dadu et al (2010) that the chemical characteristics of the Jos Plateau Volcanic Deposits indicated that the materials are potential pozzolans with good Pozzolanic Reactivity; the sum of the oxides of silica, aluminium and iron are over 76% by weight in all the materials samples reported; the report also showed that the materials were free from carbon and alkalis; the sulphur and calcium contents are found to be low, with values of 2% and 0.28% respectively. The Jos Plateau Volcanic Deposits thus, offer a ray of opportunities in the reductions of the cement contents in the concretes mixtures. The current investigations provided the levels of partial replacements of the materials with the OPC in concrete mixes.

Volcanic deposits as potential pozzolans. The distinctive characteristic of the natural pozzolana stands from its occurrence from nature with varies from the Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) production. In Portland cement production, Neville (1996) stated that calcinations of lime stones (CaCO3) create a reactive mixture of tri-calcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2), di-calcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2) and tri-calcium aluminates (3CaO.Al2O3) and tetra-calcium aluminoferrites (4CaO.Al2O3Fe2O3) is produced. Gypsum (CaSO4.2HO) is then added to the product for the preservation of the cement. But with the Volcanic Pozzolans, the raw ingredients reactivity occurs naturally from the molten earth eruptions. Thus, properties of each volcanic deposit consequently depends on the nature and type of eruptions; the chemistry therefore, differs from deposit to deposit containing mainly the oxides of silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3) and iron (Fe2O3) and other elements and alkalis in varying degrees. It is the siliceous elements in Pozzolanas react with Ca(OH)2 to produce highly cementitious calcium silicate hydrates that yield high strength and reduces permeability resulting in the production of durable concretes. The pozzolanicity of the volcanic material according to Neville (1998) is the degree of the chemical reactions of the materials with calcium hydroxide (from cement hydration) at ordinary temperature to form cementitious compounds. In the cement hydration, it is the tri-calcium silicate and the di-calcium silicate that take part in the chemical reaction producing calcium silicate, water and calcium hydroxides {CaO.SiO2.H2O and Ca(OH)2} presented thus; CaO.SiO2 2CaO.SiO2+H2O =>CaO.SiO2.H2O+Ca(OH)2.When the pozzolan is added to the hydrating cement a gel of a Cementitious substance of CalciumSilicate- Pozzolana + Ca(OH)2 + H2O => C-S-H (a strong gel).This reaction is referred to as the Pozzolanic Reaction of the pozzolan (Neuwald, 2004).The reaction continues to produce additional C-S-H. This continuous reactivity of the OPC with the pozzolan is termed the Pozzolanic Activity of the pozzolana (Zhanng et al., 1996). This pozzolanic reactivity of the Natural Pozzolanas has accounted for the continued existence of ancient structures to date. Shetty (1982) reported the Wharf of Caligula for instance was constructed with volcanic ash from Mt Vesuvius in Pozzuoli over 2000 thousand years ago. STUDY AREA Wright (1989) asserted that the Jos Plateau is a major Volcanic Region in Nigeria presented by basaltic lava flows and cones formations. The major areas of the volcanism in Nigeria are Jos, Biu and Longuda Plateax. The approximately quantities of the volcanic deposits for Jos and Biu are 4.3 and 1.25 billion cubic metres respectively; while the deposits of Longuda Plateau stand at about 75 million cubic metres of the volcanogenic materials (Lekmang, 2006).Thus, the volcanic deposits in Nigeria are in large quantities, but the high volume of the volcanic deposits of the Jos Plateau makes it favourable Study Area for the evaluation of the characteristics of Natural Pozzolans in Nigeria. sustanabilityThe Jos plateau volcanic deposits as sustainable cementitious materials. The concept of this study is the utilisation of the Jos Plateau Volcanic Pozzolans as sustainable cementitious materials for the provision of affordable mass housing for the citizenry. The use of Natural Pozzolans in the industrialized world may not be cost effective due to the costs inherent in mining and abundant industrial wastes by products pozzolans, such as fly ash and slags. But in developing communities especially Nigeria (with historic volcanism), the use of volcanic

deposits is variable; the pre-requisite to their application are reliable tests methods that would ascertain its suitability for use in concrete. The volcanic deposits do not require complex mining procedures; they are excavated just like laterite in these developing communities and are accordingly free or obtained at little cost. This situation will invariably reduce cement-making costs and lead to the provision of affordable housing. Primarily, the sustainability components of the application of the volcanic pozzolans as cementitious materials will lead to poverty reductions. This is because the utilisation of the natural pozzolans will generate local employments (in the mining and processing of the pozzolans to cementitious values) where the deposits of volcanic materials occur. Secondly, Ronald et al (2007) averred that the byproducts of Portland cement production are carbon dioxide and other environmental pollutants. The European Commission (2001) affirmed further that for every ton of Portland cement produce (during lime stone calcinations); about 1 ton of CO2 is released into the atmosphere. Wilson and Ding (2007), in appraising environmental effects of OPC production avowed that the manufacture of OPC is responsible for more than 8% of all greenhouse gasses release by human activities world over. The direct correlation therefore between Portland cement production and carbon dioxide emissions is that; a reduction in the cement contents in our concretes mixes by its substitution with natural pozzolans in the construction activities would in tandem reduce CO2 emissions (greenhouse gasses) into the atmosphere. Besides the environmental friendly and poverty alleviation potentials, the application of the natural pozzolans in partial replacements of the OPC in concrete will produce cheaper cementitious materials and thus lower construction costs, particularly in a less developed community such as Nigeria. For instance, the energy consumption in calcinations of the raw materials for the OPC production is about 1 barrel of fuel or ton of coal 1 ton of cement. European Commission (2001) asserted that this is about 50% of the total cost of producing 1 ton of Portland cement. Thus, the applications of Jos plateau volcanic deposits in concrete mixes and other cement products as sustainable cementitious materials are intended to lower construction costs, alleviate poverty and provide affordable housing to the citizenry as important goals of sustainable developments in Nigeria.

BENEFITS OF NATURAL POZZOLANS AS CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS. Pozzolanas are cement of antiquities. Detwiler et al (1996) averred that making of hydraulic binders using these cements date back to 10th century BC. The word pozzolana, according to meaning Powder from Puteoli according to Jackson et al (2003), were a direct reference to the unconsolidated pyroclastic (ash) deposits of Campi flegrei and Vesuvius volcanic fields were the Romans first discovered the unique characteristics of the pozzolans. But today, American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM) C 618 (2005), defined pozzolans as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, which ordinary possesses little or no cementitious values but when, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious properties. Kurtis (2002) classified the pozzolans into Natural and Artificial. The Artificial Pozzolanas are residues of waste products of Industrial Manufacturing Processes, which includes fly ash, activated or artificially burnt clays, slags, silica fume and ashes from agricultural industrial residues; among these are rice husk ash, sugar cane straw ash and ground nut shell ash .The Natural pozzolans are made up of the volcanic ash, pumicite, volcanic tuffs, diatomaceous

earths, volcanic glass, lava, opaline chert and shales resulting from rapid cooling of lavas ejected during volcanic eruptions. The Natural pozzolans have economic benefits as they are cheaper to process (with low technological inputs and capital out lay) and requiring no burning of any sort prior to their applications. The volcanic deposits would thus not only argument the local cement productions, but also reduce the cost of cement in the country. OBJECTIVES OF STUDY The aim of this study is to investigate the pozzolanic characteristics of Jos Plateau Volcanic Deposits as potential pozzolans for innovative, sustainable and environmentally friendly cementitious materials for partial replacement of the Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) in concrete mixes. Therefore, to achieve the objectives of the study, the investigations are to determine the levels of partial replacements of the OPC with the volcanic materials in the production of Portland Pozzolana Cement Concretes. SCOPE OF STUDY. The scope of this study is to evaluate the level of partial replacement of OPC with the volcanic rocks from Jos Plateau in concrete mixtures. The collections of the samples were limited to outstanding volcanic land marks and materials exposed as results of physical activities such soil erosion, mining and road construction exploits in the area of the study. The materials were collected from 20 locations; JP1 (Mista Ali) JP2 (Kaskadi), JP3 (Miango). JP4 (Gwafan), JP5 (Furaka), JP6 (Lobel), JP7 (Fobur), JP8 (Vwang), JP9 (Kwi), JP10 (Kombun), JP11 (Kafi Abu), JP12 (Kuben), JP13 (Danwal), JP14 (Bang), JP15 (Kuba), JP16 (Niyes), JP17 (Wunat), JP18 (Kerang), JP19 (Larpia) and JP20 (Mile 8). RESEARCH LIMITATIONS The purpose of the investigations is to evaluate the pozzolanic activity of the Jos Plateau volcanic Deposits as potential pozzolans for replacements of OPC in our concrete mixes for low cost housing construction. Consequently, tests of physical characteristics such as soundness, setting time and pozzolanic activity index with lime of the Portland pozzolana cement concretes were not within the time frame and the objectives of this study. Long term deleterious activities that manifest after years of construction (Neville and Brooks, 2008) such as tests on resistance to sulpate attack, resistance to freezing and thawing and alkalis-aggregate reactions tests were not studied under the present work. RESEARCH METHOD Determination of the compressive strength. 1. Materials and samples preparations. The volcanic deposits samples were ground manually to powder with an agate mortar and the sieving were carried out in accordance with the ASTM C 136 (2006) Method of sieve Analysis until all material passed 90m (sieve no 170). According to Neville (1998), this fineness is necessary because the rate of hydration depends on the fineness of the cement particles and for rapid development of strengths in concretes. Shetty (2006) explained further that finer cement

offers greater surface area for hydration, hence faster strength developments. Locally available Ordinary Portland cements; the Dangote brands were obtained from Zaria Building Materials Market. But preceding the utilisation of the cement, the determination of the Oxides Composition, LOI and the MC of the cement were investigated. The results (Table) showed excess of CaO -79.45% by weight as against ASTM C 150 Limits of 60-67%; very low value of SiO2 - 8.56 as against ASTM C 150 limits of 17-25; and a high LOI of 8.8%,ASTM C 150 limits are 1-3% by weight of the cement.
Table 1. Chemical composition of Dangote cement.
component CaO SiO2 Al2O3, Fe2O3 MgO SO3 MnO SrO Alkalis LOI MC Content % 79.46 8.56 1.7 3.95 0.03 1.62 0.02 0.74 0.21 8.8 0.3 ASTM C 150(2004) Limits 60-67 17-25 3-8 0.5-6.0 0.1-4.0 1-3 0.2-1.3 1-3 -

The crushed stones sands met the specifications of ASTM C33 (2002).The sands were quartzite river sands; and the crushed granite stones were obtained from a Local Quarry. Tap water was used for the production and the curing of the concrete cubes. 2. Compressive strengths portland pozzolana cement. The concrete cubes were prepared in 150mm steel moulds and tested in accordance to ASTM C 109 / 109M (2001) techniques. The Portland cement was replaced with 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 30% of the volcanic materials in the concrete mixtures. The water/cement ratio of 0.55 was used for all the mixes. This is in line with Neville (1998) recommendation that in partial replace concrete test, water/cement ratio of 0.60, 0.55 or 0.45 be applied for the concrete mixtures. The control cubes specimens were treated identically to the test specimens and compressive strengths of all the cubes were measured at 7, 14 and 28 days. THE POZZOLANIC ACTIVITY INDEX WITH PORTLAND CEMENT. American Society for Testing and Material C 311(2000) recommended that the strength activity index be used to determine if a mineral admixture is in an acceptable level of strength development when in addition with hydraulic cement. The Pozzolanic Activity Index (PAIC) with Portland cement as explained by Neville and Books (2008) is the ratio of compressive strength of the mixture with a specific replacement of cement by the pozzolana to the strength of the mix without replacement. ASTM C 618 (2005) provides the determination as PAIC = 100. Where A = average compressive strengths of test mix cubes (N/mm2). B = average compressive strengths of control mix cubes (N/mm2).

These were established by the evaluation of the strength of the concrete with zero pozzolan and with the specific replacements at 28 days for all the samples investigated. RESULTS AND DISCUSION

1. Control cubes
The control cubes tests (Table 2.) indicated that the compressive strengths at 7, 14 and 28 days were 20.18 N/mm2, 23.93N/mm2 and 26.0N/mm2 respectively. Table 2. Control cubes compressive strengths (N/mm2) Day 7 14 28 2 2 Compressive 20.18(N/mm ) 23.93(N/mm ) 26.0(N/mm2) 2 Strength(N/mm ) 2. Compressive strengths portland pozzolana cement. The Compressive strengths results (Table 3) showed that portland pozzolana cement concretes with 5%, 10% and15% of the volcanic materials partially replacing the OPC in the concrete mixtures certified the minimum recommendation of ASTM C 618(2005) that compressive strengths of PPC concrete should be at least 75% of the control cubes compressive strengths at 28 days crushing. For 20% replacements, 90% of the samples tested also met this recommendation. Table 3. Compressive Strength (N/mm2) of Portland pozzolana concretes.
Sample JP1 Mista Ali Day 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 Percentage Replacement of Portland cement 5% 10% 15% 20% 30% 23.08 25.57 28.46 22.91 24.54 27.19 24.08 25.72 29.63 24.58 26.24 30.27 24.29 25.81 29.71 19.93 23.47 26.13 23.46 24.73 30.14 22.17 23.22 28.85 19.96 21.38 24.77 22.38 24.02 26.88 20.81 23.81 27.97 21.01 23.13 26.36 23.81 25.01 27.24 21.17 24.26 30.79 23.28 24.76 26.02 19.05 22.07 25.38 22.77 23.61 23.93 21.58 22.09 25.04 19.46 20.57 23.15 18.69 23.90 24.64 19.10 23.36 25.33 18.89 21.44 24.29 21.66 23.41 25.73 19.78 23.85 25.63 20.79 21.63 25.13 19.86 20.55 22.34 22.00 23.05 23.96 20.47 21.03 23.35 18.56 19.01 22.41 16.51 20.91 22.25 15.33 22.19 23.73 16.17 19.09 22.63 20.37 22.19 25.09 14.92 21.63 24.00 16.32 18.83 20.37 18.17 17.13 20.36 17.35 18.91 21.50 15.94 16.71 19.10 18.00 19.79 20.09 15.82 19.10 21.32 13.70 14.81 14.82 12.76 13.33 13.18 13.15 15.85 18.08 14.00 13.29 14.83 12.86 14.56 17.72 13.25 15.74 18.19 14.46 16.00 18.36 15.13 16.01 18.23 15.38 15.99 18.88 15.79 17.74 19.94 Sample JP11 Kafi Abu Day 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28 Percentage Replacement of Portland cement 5% 10% 15% 20% 24.04 23.36 27.93 21.39 23.68 28.36 20.40 22.39 24.22 23.66 27.38 30.82 19.71 20.29 26.58 23.37 24.18 29.91 19.55 24.02 26.06 21.39 22.25 29.32 18.89 22.93 27.23 19.90 23.83 26.02 21.34 22.47 26.13 20.31 21.53 26.23 17.68 19.83 23.16 18.47 22.03 26.00 19.04 18.37 20.95 21.31 22.14 25.48 19.21 22.37 24.06 20.91 24.67 27.62 18.96 22.06 25.19 19.31 23.63 25.92 18.94 20.17 25.54 16.79 19.37 24.74 16.93 19.12 22.45 19.94 22.16 24.66 16.34 16.98 18.23 18.43 20.54 23.03 18.25 21.13 22.78 19.61 22.10 25.41 18.43 22.14 24.83 18.90 23.36 25.11 14.04 15.78 20.55 15.23 16.72 20.21 14.35 17.89 19.49 16.12 19.16 21.06 13.47 16.03 16.77 13.79 14.55 17.17 16.50 18.86 21.50 16.12 20.14 22.10 17.07 20.03 23.17 16.00 19.20 22.61 30% 12.73 13.34 15.39 12.73 13.94 14.75 13.89 15.86 17.38 11.28 13.71 17.58 11.20 11.93 14.67 13.03 13.96 14.01 15.69 18.22 20.61 11.85 14.55 16.90 13.27 15.24 18.89 14.63 16.43 18.59

JP2 Kaskadi JP3 Miango JP4 Gwafan JP5 Furaka JP6 Lobel JP7 Fobur JP8 Vwang JP9 Kwi JP10 Kombun

JP12 Kuben JP13 Danwal JP14 Bang JP15 Kuba JP16 Niyes JP17 Wunat JP18 Kerang JP19 Larpia JP20 Mile 8

3. Compressive strength of Average Samples Tested N/mm2 . 2 The average compressive strength N/mm (Figure 1) of the Jos Natural Pozzolana volcanic rock

samples of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30% replacements of OPC with the volcanic rocks materials at 28 days for the 20 samples investigated were evaluated as 27.97, 25.61, 23.86, 21.14 and 17.19 N/mm2 respectively.
Compressive strength N/mm2 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0% 5% 10% 7 Days `14 Days2 28 Days 15% 20% 30%

Average replacements of volcanic materials

Figure 1. Average Compressive strength N/mm2 of the Jos Natural Pozzolana.

4. The Pozzolanic Activity Index with Portland cement (PAI-C) at 28 days. The results (Figure 2) of the Pozzolanic Activity Index with Portland cement (PAI-C) with volcanic materials and the compressive strengths of the control specimens measured at 28 days. The activity index vary from 92 (JP5) to 116 (JP3, JP4 and JP7). The average index (105) of the 5% replacement is also presented.
PAI with PC(5%) @ 28 days 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

JP5

JP3

JP4

JP6

JP7

JP8

JP9

JP10

JP11

JP12

JP13

JP14

JP15

JP16

JP17

JP18

JP19

JP20

JP1

JP2

Volcanic Rocks Samples

Figure 2.

Pozzolanic Activity Index with Portland cement at 28 days.

Figure 3 is the PAIC with 10% replacement of the OPC with volcanic materials and the compressive strengths measured at 28 days. The activity index vary from 87(JP9) to 108 (JP1). The average index is 96.

Average

PAI with PC(10%) @ 28 days

120 100 80 60 40 20 0

JP2

JP8 JP9

JP1

JP3

JP4

JP5

JP6

JP7

JP10

JP11

JP12

JP13

JP14

JP15

JP16

JP17

JP18

JP19

JP20

Volcanic Rocks Samples

Figure 3.

Pozzolanic Activity Index with Portland cement at 28 days.

Replacement of 15% of the OPC with volcanic materials and the compressive strengths measured at 28 days showed that the PAI-C (Figure 4) vary from 70 (JP15) to 98 (Samples JP1 and JP17) with an average of 90.
PAI with PC(15%) @ 28 days 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 JP1 JP2 JP3 JP4 JP5 JP6 JP7 JP8 JP9 JP10 JP11 JP12 JP13 JP14 JP15 JP16 JP17 JP18 JP19 JP20 Average

Volcanic Rocks Samples

Figure 4.

Pozzolanic Activity Index with Portland cement at 28 days.

The results(Figure 5) indicated that the PAIC with 20% replacement of the OPC with volcanic materials and the compressive strengths measured at 28 days provided activity index varying from 65 (JP5) to 91(JP1). The average index was 81for the 20% replacements.
100 80 60 40 20 JP 1 JP 2 JP3 JP4 JP5 JP6 JP7 JP8 JP9 JP10 JP11 JP12 JP13 JP14 JP15 JP16 JP17 JP18 JP19 JP20 Avera 0

PAI with PC(20%) @ 28 days

Volcanic Rocks Samples

Figure 5.

Pozzolanic Activity Index with Portland cement at 28 days.

Average

The results (Figure 6) indicated that the PAI-C with 30% replacement of the OPC with volcanic materials only 4 samples {JP1 (75), JP7 (83), JP10 (77), JP14 (79)} representing 20% had its activity index within the recommended value of 75.

PAI with PC(30%) @ 28 days

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 JP 1 JP2 JP 3 JP 4 JP5 JP6 JP7 JP8 JP9 JP10 JP11 JP12 JP13 JP14 JP15 JP16 JP17 JP18 JP19 JP20 Average

Volcanic Rocks Samples

Figure 6.

Pozzolanic Activity Index with Portland cement at 28 days

The results of Figures 2 to 6 showed that PAI with Portland cement at 5, 10, 15 and 20% replacements, with Portland cement is within the ASTM C 595(2006) specification of minimum of 75% at 28 days; this is the basis for a pozzolan to be utilised for pozzolan to use Portland Pozzolana Cement in concrete production. This according to ACI (2000) report, are indicators of the reactivity of the pozzolan. But with 30% partial replacements only samples JP1 (75%), JP7 (83%), JP10 (77) and JP14 (79%) representing 20% of the samples investigated met the Pozzolanic Activity Index specification of ASTM C 595(2006). Conclusion The results of the compressive tests showed that the pozzolan can partially replace up to 20% of Ordinary Portland Cement in the concrete production which is within the limits of ASTM C 618 (2005). ASTM C 595 (2005) classified the Portland Pozzolana Cement Concrete as type IP (cement for general concrete construction) and type P (for use when high strengths at early ages are not a requirement). ASTM C 595 (2005) however limits the pozzolana content in the concrete to between 15-40 % by weight. It is thus concluded, that the Jos Plateau Volcanic Deposits can utilised in partial replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement up to 20% as innovative, sustainable and environmentally friendly cementitious materials for partial replacement of the Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) in concrete mixes; this will invariably reduce cement-making costs, leading to the provision of affordable housing.

RECOMMENDATIONS. The establishment of Blending Plants for the production of Portland Pozzolan Cements is recommended; since there are economic benefits of the utilisation of volcanic deposits as cementitious materials in providing cheaper housing. It is further recommended that the studies be carried out on physical characteristics such as soundness, setting time and pozzolanic activity index with lime of the Portland pozzolana cement concretes were also not carried out within the

time frame and the objectives of the study. REFERENCES.

American Concrete Institute (2000).Use of Raw or Processed Natural Pozzolanas in Concrete. Committee Report R232, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, United States of America, pp. 1-10.
American Society for Testing and Material. (2004). Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity), and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate. American Society for Testing and Material, West Conshohocken, Pa., No. C127 American Society for Testing and Material. (2000), Standard Specification for Portland cement concrete. American Society for Testing and Material, West Conshohocken, Pa.,No.C 150. American Society for Testing and Material (2003). Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates. American Society for Testing and Material, West Conshohocken, Pa., Nos 33 American Society for Testing and Material. (2006).Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates. American Society for Testing and Material, West Conshohocken, Pa., No. C 136. ASTM-(a) C 311(2005a): Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use in Portland-Cement Concrete. American Society for Testing and Material, West Conshohocken, Pa., No.C311 American Society for Testing and Material. (2005), Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements. American Society for Testing and Material, West Conshohocken, Pa., No. C 595. American Society for Testing and Material. (2005), Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolana or Use in as a Mineral Admixture in Portland cement Concrete. American Society for Testing and Material, West Conshohocken, Pa., No C 618. American Society for Testing and Material (2001) Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or 50-mm Cube Specimens), American Society for Testing and Material, West Conshohocken, Pa., No. C 109/C 109M. Dadu, D. W. Garba, M. M. Zubairu, I. K. Bustani, S. A. (2010). Investigations into The Pozzolanic Activities of Volcanic Deposits from the Jos Plateau: Interim Report on Chemical Characteristics. In: Laryea, S. S., Leiringer, R. and Hughes, W. (Eds).Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 27-28 July 2010, Accra. Ghana. pp. 395-402.

Detwiler, R. J., Bhatty J.I. and Bhattacharja S. (1996). Supplementary Cementing Materials for Use in Blended Cements. In; Research and Development Bulletin, Portland cement Association, Skokie, Illinois.
European Commission (2001). Pollution Control on Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries. In European Commission Report, pp. 10-14, Seville, Spain. Fiakpa, L. (2008). The Cement Barrier Crumbles. Thisday Sunday, Jan 20. 3, pp 28-29.

10

Jackson, M., Sagnotti, L., Solheid. (2003) Pozzolana Cement. Institute of Rock Magnetic Quarterly. Minneapolis, 13.3:2-10.
Kurtis, K. (2002), Supplementary Cementitious Materials. In: Pres to Precast Concrete Association, 2003, PCA CD2038. Lekmang. I. C. (2006). Geochemical Study of the Basaltic Volcanism within the Jos Plateau Younger Granite Province North Central Nigeria. In; Pres to the Department of Geology and Mining, Faculty of Natural Science, University of Jos, 2006. Neuwald, A.D. (2004).Supplementary Cementitious Material. Part 2; Pozzolanic Supplementary Cementitious Material, In; Manufactured Concrete Magazine, app. -17. Retrieved.www.precast.org/publicatios/mc/2005-janfeb/scm-part2.htm on 2 June, 2007. Neville, A. M. (1998). Properties of Concrete 3rd Edition. A Pitman International London, pp. 118-162. Neville, A. M. and Books J. J. (2008). Concrete Technology, Pearson education Ltd., India Branch, New Delhi, Revised Edition, pp. 8-38.

Oluwakeyesi, T. (20011).NIGERIAN Cement Industry; Unbundling Potentials. In; Pres to Vetiva Capital Management Limited, 2010.
Ronald A. H., Thomas, D. E., Jr., and Christian, W.A. S. (2007). Natural Pozzolans for Sustainable Development: Mapping Poverty in the Philippine. In: Report to National Science Foundation. Shetty, M. S. (2006). Concrete Technology; Theory and Practice, S Chad and Company, New Delhi, India, pp. 124 238. Wilson, John, W and Ding, Y. C. (2007).A Compressive Report on Pozzolanic Admixtures; The Cement Industry, Market and Economic Trends and Major Companies Operating In The Far East, with reference to Pagan Island; In Report to The Secretary, Department of Public, Lands, Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Island. Wright, J. B. (1989). Volcanic Rocks in Nigeria. In: Kogbe, C. A. (Ed), Geology of Nigeria. 2nd Edition, Rock View (Nigeria) Limited, Jos. pp. 125 175. Zhanng, C., Aigin, W., Mingshu, T. and Xiaoyu, L. (1996). Filling Role of Pozzolanic Material, Cement and Concrete Research, 26: 943 947.

11