Yoga

Namaste.
I honor the place in you in which the entire universe dwells.
I honor the place in you which is of love, of peace, of light, and of truth.
When you are in that place in you, and I am in that place in me,
We are One.

Bulleted columns represent those characteristics that have been associated with yoga in the research literature.
Please note that only evidence from experimental research levels A and B are included. Level C evidence (non-
quantifiable) is not included in the table but is described in the text. Please see the User’s Guide Section: 3 for a
detailed description of research levels.

Neuromusculoskeletal Functions Movement Functions Sensory Systems Mental Functions

Functions Function
Flexibility

Strength: Upper Body

Strength: Lower Body

Bone Development

Metabolic Changes
Muscle Relaxation

Coordination

Balance

Cognition

Psychosocial Development
Motor Skills

Sensory Development

Socialization
Proprioception/Kinesthetics

Cardiorepiratory Health

Body Image/Self-Esteem
Fine Motor Control

Visuomotor
Posture

Traditional Yoga Children’s yoga: modified form incorporating

Originates in East Indian philosophy storytelling, drama, music, games, and group
Emphasizes self-actualization and the poses
union of mind and spirit Functional Skill Examples
Karma yoga, emphasizing action Sit, stand, kneel, four point, transfers
Bhakti yoga, emphasizing emotion
Inana yoga, emphasizing knowledge and
wisdom
Advantages
Raja yoga, emphasizing mental and Requires no special equipment or clothing
physical control May be practiced individually at home
May be safe alternative to higher energy
Hatha Yoga activities for those at risk for coronary events
Popular subform of traditional Raja yoga
Composed of three primary elements: Precautions
pranayama (breathwork), asanas (physical Ashtanga yoga and select Iyengar poses
postures), and shavasana (meditation) may be contraindicated for individuals with
Viniyoga, restorative/therapeutic yoga, and cardiac conditions
integral yoga: gentle forms promoting Select yoga poses may be contraindicated
relaxation and coordination of breath with for specific orthopedic conditions
movement Children should not practice select forms of
Iyengar yoga and Ashtanga/power yoga: pranayama
relatively vigorous forms emphasizing Yoga practice by individuals under 16 years
strengthening and flexibility of age is not endorsed by the American
Yoga Association
 note: American Yoga Association is independent and Individuals should consult their doctors
is not a governing organization for yoga teachers
before initiating new activities or when
increasing activity level

Physical and
Psychosocial Outcomes
SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE
A significant body of research exists
regarding the potential role yoga practice
may play in the treatment of various
diseases and ailments, including heart
disease, asthma, epilepsy, and carpal tunnelNEUROMUSCULAR FUNCTIONS
syndrome, among others. Although the most Flexibility
signficant body of literature related to yoga
practice documents the cardio-pulmonary
benefits associated with participation, strong
evidence also documents improvements in
metabolic profiles and in upper extremity
strength. A small but remarkable body of
evidence documents improvements in cognitive
function in children and adolescents who
practice yoga. There is surprisingly little written
in the research literature regarding the impact of C Described as improving posture in
yoga practice on flexibility and balance.
Fourteen articles included in this review are
related to the benefits of yoga participation for
individuals with disabilities or potentially
disabling conditions; five of these articles are
specific to children with disabilities. Four
studies included in this review used children
without disabilities as subjects.
Although yoga practice is traditionally
considered a whole lifestyle that incorporates
a vegetarian diet, the most common practice
of yoga in the United States does not
necessarily incorporate vegetarianism.
Consequently, studies that included a
vegetarian diet in the intervention were
excluded from this review. As meditation is an
integral part of any yoga practice, articles
documenting the effects of meditation
practice, which may or may not have
included other yoga practices, were included
in this review.
Specific examples of the documented
outcomes of participation in yoga are listed
below.
B Increased hand range of motion in
novice practitioners with osteoarthritis
(Garfinkle et al 1994)
C Described as improving flexibility in
practitioners with cognitive impairments
(Fields 1991)
Posture
practitioners with visual impairments
(Hider 1983)
Strength: Upper Body
A Improved grip strength in Iyengar yoga
practitioners with carpal tunnel syndrome
(Garfinkle et al 1998)
A Increased muscular efficiency and
endurance of upper extremity muscles in
novice hatha yoga practitioners
(Ray et al 1986)
B Increased hand grip strength in novice
Iyengar yoga practitioners with
osteoarthritis
(Garfinkle et al 1994)
MOVEMENT FUNCTIONS
Coordination
C Described as improving coordination in
practitioners with cognitive impairments
(Fields 1991)
Motor Skills
B Improved performance on static motor

Our appreciation to the University of North Carolina Center for Development and Learning and The
North Carolina Office on Disability and Health for their support of this publication.
For more information on the benefits of participation in recreation contact your local physical,
occupational, or recreation therapist or your local community recreation provider.
Hunter, K.
2/02
 activities requiring hand steadiness and
visuomotor coordination in children
practicing yoga
(Telles et al 1993)
C Described as improving orientation and
mobility skills in practitioners with visual
impairments
(Hider 1983)
SENSORY FUNCTIONS
Proprioception and Kinesthetics
C Described as improving kinesthetic
awareness and spatial orientation in
practitioners with visual impairments
(Hider 1983)
Sensory Development
A Improved visual contrast sensitivity in
Sahaja yoga meditation practitioners with
epilepsy
(Panjwani et al 2000)
A Decreased pain and select other
symptoms associated with carpal tunnel
syndrome in Iyengar yoga practitioners
(Garfinkle et al 1998)
SYSTEMS FUNCTIONS
Cardiorespiratory Health
A Decreased heart rate in adolescent yoga
practitioners
(Telles et al 1997)
A/B Decreased respiration rate in yoga,
pranayama, and shavasana practitioners
(Telles et al 1997; Raju et al 1994)
A Improved airway reactivity in pranayama
practitioners with asthma
(Singh et al 1990)
A Decreased diastolic blood pressure in
meditation practitioners
(Morrell and Hollandsworth 1986)
A/B Improved asthma control in novice yoga
practitioners with asthma
(Nagendra and Nagarathna 1986;
Nagarathna and Nagendra 1985;
Jain et al 1991)
Our appreciation to the University of North Carolina Center for Development and Learning and The
North Carolina Office on Disability and Health for their support of this publication.
For more information on the benefits of participation in recreation contact your local physical,
occupational, or recreation therapist or your local community recreation provider.
Hunter, K.
2/02
B Improved vital lung capacity in novice
hatha yoga practitioners
(Birkel and Edgren 2000)
B Improved utilization of oxygen in novice
pranayama and shavasana practitioners
(Raju et al 1994)
B Increased heart rate during meditation in
Brahmakumaris Raja yoga practitioners
(Telles and Desiraju 1993)
B Improved pulmonary function in novice
adolescent practitioners with asthma
(Jain et al 1991)
B Decreased systolic and diastolic blood
pressure in novice practitioners
(Sundar et al 1984)
B Decreased hypertensive drug
requirements in novice shavasana
practitioners with hypertension
(Sundar et al 1984)
Metabolic Changes
A/B Decreased cortisol levels in meditation
and yoga practitioners
(MacLean et al 1997; Kamel and Toriumi
2000)
A Decreased body weight in novice hatha
yoga practitioners
(Ray et al 1986)
A Increased plasma norepinephrine levels at
venipuncture in meditation practitioners
(Morrell and Hollandsworth 1986)
B Increased melatonin levels in
experienced meditation practitioners
(Tooley et al 2000)
B Increased levels of corticotropin-
releasing hormone in experienced
meditation practitioners
(Harte et al 1995)
B Decreased blood lactate levels and
increased pyrvate/lactate ratio in novice
pranayama and shavasana practitioners
(Raju et al 1994)
B Decreased blood cholesterol levels in
novice practitioners
(Joseph et al 1981)
B Decreased fasting blood glucose levels
 in novice practitioners
(Joseph et al 1981) Psychosocial Development
B Increased alpha wave predominance in
Other experienced and inexperienced yoga
A Decreased seizure frequency in practitioners
practitioners with epilepsy (Kamel and Toriumi 2000; Joseph et al
(Panjwani et al 1996) 1981)
B Enhanced perception of relaxation and
increased levels of positive affect in
experienced meditation practitioners
(Harte et al 1995)
B Enhanced mental and physical energy in
novice pranayama practitioners
(Wood 1993)

MENTAL FUNCTIONS

Body Image/Self-esteem
A Improved body satisfaction in novice
children practicing yoga
(Clance et al 1980)
B Improved body awareness in hatha B Decreased anxiety, panic, and depressive
yoga practitioners symptoms in meditation and yoga
(Rani and Rao 1994; Engelman et al 1982) practitioners
B Improved self-cathexis in novice hatha (Kabat-Zinn et al 1992; Berger and Owen
yoga practitioners 1988)
(Engelman et al 1982) B Decreased tension, confusion, and
C Described as improving body awareness aggression in yoga practitioners
in practitioners with disabilities (Berger and Owen 1988)
(Fields 1991; Hider 1983) C Described as encouraging positive group
C Described as improving self esteem in identity in practitioners with cognitive
practitioners with visual impairments impairments
(Hider 1983) (Fields 1991)
C Described as improving sleeping habits
in practitioners with visual impairments
Cognition (Hider 1983)
A Improved intellectual function, including
intelligence quotient and mental age, in
child and adolescent practitioners with
Socialization
mental retardation A Improved social adaptation skills in
(Uma et al 1989) novice child and adolescent practitioners
B Improved spatial memory in adolescent with mental retardation
pranayama practitioners (Uma et al 1989)
(Naveen et al 1997) B Improved social interaction in novice
B Improved academic performance in child practitioners
novice child yoga practitioners (Clance et al 1980)
(Clance et al 1980) C Described as promoting social
C Described as improving ability to follow independence and competence in
verbal directions in practitioners with visual practitioners with visual impairments
impairments (Hider 1983)
(Hider 1983)

Our appreciation to the University of North Carolina Center for Development and Learning and The
North Carolina Office on Disability and Health for their support of this publication.
For more information on the benefits of participation in recreation contact your local physical,
occupational, or recreation therapist or your local community recreation provider.
Hunter, K.
2/02
 but emphasize poses incorporating a
posterior pelvic tilt, such as Angry Cat pose

Motor Memory
Use visual representations of pose
sequences or components
(e.g. picture schedule)

Vision
Provide precise, verbal explanations
Provide tactile cues and hands-on
assistance, particularly when individual is
first learning pose
Demonstrate poses in a bright clothes
Incorporate group chanting to foster group
identification

Selected Resources
Note: Resources selected are not
Modifications comprehensive and are not endorsed by authors.

GENERAL MODIFICATION Articles

EXAMPLES Galas J. The breath that refreshes.
Modify poses with pillows, wedges, Paraplegia News. 1996;50(3):46-51.
bolsters, blocks, scarves, and belts
Use a wall, chair, parallel bars, or inclusion Books
aide to provide additional support Brosnan B. Yoga for Handicapped People.
Use an inclusion aide to assist in 1982. Souvenir Press
performing poses Fontana D. Teaching Meditation to Children.
Perform upper extremity/trunk components 1997. Element Books.
of standing poses while sitting against a Luby T. Children’s Book of Yoga: Games &
wall, sitting in a chair, or in high kneel Exercises Mimic Plants & Animals &
If in a group, practice in a circle formation Objects. 1998. Clear Light Publishers.
Break individual poses down into sub- Stewart M, Phillips K. Yoga for Children.
components 1992. Simon & Schuster, Inc.
Sumar S. Translator: Jeffrey Volk,
SPECIFIC MODIFICATION EXAMPLES Adriana Marusso. Yoga for the Special
For children Child: A Therapeutic Approach for Infants
Incorporate group poses, storytelling, and Children with Down Syndrome,
drama, and music Cerebral Palsy, and Learning Disabilities.
Use a candle/flame or a sand hourglass 1998. Special Yoga.
as a focus for meditation activities
Websites
For individuals with difficulties in:
Yoga for the Special Child
Flexibility or Range of Motion www.specialyoga.com
Modify individual poses and pose Yogakids
sequences to accomodate individual needs www.yogakids.com
e.g. individuals with loridosis may choose You and Me Yoga
not to move to end ranges of motion in www.youandme-yoga.org
spinal extension poses, such as Bow pose,
Our appreciation to the University of North Carolina Center for Development and Learning and The
North Carolina Office on Disability and Health for their support of this publication.
For more information on the benefits of participation in recreation contact your local physical,
occupational, or recreation therapist or your local community recreation provider.
Hunter, K.
2/02
 National and Local Foundations and
Equipment Organizations
Floor Point Yoga videotape American Yoga Association
www.floorpointyoga.com www.americanyogaassociation.org
The Yoga Garden Game Conscious Wave program: Gaiam Yoga for
www.theyogagarden.com Life in the schools
yogaforlife@gaiam.com

Our appreciation to the University of North Carolina Center for Development and Learning and The
North Carolina Office on Disability and Health for their support of this publication.
For more information on the benefits of participation in recreation contact your local physical,
occupational, or recreation therapist or your local community recreation provider.
Hunter, K.
2/02