1.

Differentiating some key terminologies

Starting from the point of view that any subject contains some terminologies that need to be explained clearly, so that they may not be confused by the lack of distinction between one terminology to another, in this first section of our written academic work, we are going to explain some differences concerned with these key terminologies. Let us kick off our discussion by looking at the differences between the places and the manners of articulation. 1.1. Place of articulation and Manner of articulation According to Yule (2006:30) place of articulation is the term used to describe where many sounds are produced through the constrictions of vocal cords. Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics (2002:319) defines the manner of articulation as the way in which a speech is produced by the speech organs. From the above definitions I can sum up that the place of articulation has to do with the location where the speech sound of a word is produced or made, and the manner of articulation means the way or mood a certain speech sound is made or produced. 1.2. Vocal Organs and Articulation Crystal (2003:124) argues that, vocal organs are those parts of the body that are involved in the production of speech. From this passage I can deduce that the vocal organs play a crucial role in the articulation of human speech sounds. Crystal (2003:130) explains that, articulation is the process of making distinguishable speech sounds by applying several places for sound production in the mouth. From the above explanation I can conclude that, in the process of sound production, in order for a sound to be distinguished from the other, it is necessary to use the right organ of articulation otherwise the produced sound will be confused with another sound, that is why each speech sound has the specific organ of production which helps to easily distinguish a released speech sound from another, in order for a sound speech not to be confused with another sound.

1.3. Phonetics and Phonology Yule (2006:30) defines phonetics as the study of the general characteristics of sound speech, so we have: articulatory phonetics,which is the study of how speech sounds are made, acoustic phonetics,which deals with the physical properties of speech, and auditory phonetics which deals with sound perception. Phonology is defined by Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics (2002:398) as the establishment and description of distinctive sound units of a language by means of distinctive features. From the above definitions I can sum up that, both terminologies play very important roles in the field of articulatory phonetics, because the two terminologies help us to understand better how sounds can be strung together to form meaningful unities in English and how these speech sound are produced, and how they may be characterized. 1.4. Consonants sounds and Vowels sounds production Roach (2009:10) claims that, consonants sounds are those produced through the obstructions of air flow as it passes from the larynx to the lips. Roach (2009:10) adds yet that, vowels sounds are sounds produced when there is an obstruction of air flow as it passes from the larynx to the lips. From the above passage I can conclude that, the huge difference between consonants and vowels sound production is, that all vowels sounds are typically voiced while the consonants sounds can be voiced and voiceless. 1.5. Voiced sounds and Voiceless sounds A voiced sound is a sort of sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn together, Yule (2006:30) adds that, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. A voiceless sound is a sound produced when the vocal cords are spread apart, Yule (2006:30) yet claims that, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.

From the above point of view, I can conclude that the difference between the two terminologies is that, voiced speech sounds are characterized by a vibration while voiceless speech sounds have no vibration effect at all. Done with differentiating some key terminologies, let us continuo our discussion with the places of articulations

2. Places of Articulation
It is already known that the places of articulation are the term used to describe where many speech sounds are produced, through the constriction of different physical organs of articulation. Let us now see the different places where the human speech sounds are produced. 2.7-Glottals According to Yule (2006:33) these are sounds speech production do not involve the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth. From the above point of view I can deduce that, glottal sounds productions do not need the involvement of other vocals muscles in the mouth and the glottal sounds are usually described as voiceless glottal. For example, the sound [h] for the Umbundu word handi which means not yet. 2.2-Velars Yule (2006:33) argues that, these are sounds produced in the back roof of the mouth. From this passage I can add that these sounds are made by allowing the air passing through the nose and trough the mouth, when we speak the soft palate or velum gets raised so that the air cannot escape through the nose and these sounds are described sometimes as voiceless, for example the sound [k] for the Umbundu word kapa, which means put, and sometimes as a voiced sound, for example, the sound[] known as angma, it is spelled as the two letters" ng" for example the Umbundu word sanga which means find.

2.3-Palatals According to Roach (2009:9) palatals sounds are sounds produced in the roof of the mouth with the tongue close to the hard palate. From this passage I can sum up that palatals sounds are identified as voiced sounds, for example the sound [dz] for the Umbundu word tchimunu which means robber, and sometimes are also identified as voiceless sounds, for example the sound [tj], for the Umbundu word tjingami, which means how much. 2.4-Alveolars Crystals (2003:130) claims that, alveolars sounds are sounds produced by the ridge behind the upper teeth, known as alveolar ridge, against which many speech sounds are made. From this affirmation I can deduce that the alveolars sounds may be voiced and voiceless sounds speech. For example, the sound [d] for the Umbundu word divalete which means I see them is a voiced sound, whereas the sound [s] for the Umbundu word simoleh which means I do not appear, is a voiceless sound. 2.5-Dentals According to Yule (2006:32) these are speech sounds produced with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. From the this point of view I can add up that the use of symbols is necessary in order to identify whether they are voiceless dentals sound whose symbol is known as theta [], for example the Umbundu word ofi, which means fed up is a voiceless sound, whereas the symbol for voiced dentals sound is [] known as eth, for example the Umbundu word oko, which means there. 2.6-Labio-dentals Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics (2002:282) defines the term labio-dentals as a consonant speech sound which is produced by the lower lip touching or nearly touching the upper teeth. From this passage I can add that, labio-dentals sounds have their place of production in the mouth, these sounds are divided into voiced for example, the sound [v] for the Umbundu word vatume which means send, and voiceless for the sound [f] for the Umbundu word feka which means country.

2.7- Bilabials Roach (2009:10) claims that, bilabials sounds are sounds produced when the lips are contact with each other. From this affirmation I can sum up that bilabials sounds are produced whenever the upper lip touches the lower lip, and they may be characterized as voiced for example, the sound [b] for the Umbundu word bilikiye, and voiceless for example the sound [p] for the word pamwe, which means sometimes. Having finished discussing the places of articulation, let us shift to the manner of articulation.

3. Manners of Articulation
We already know that the manners of articulation deal with how human speech sound is produced, or the way the words are pronounced. Being so, let us have a look at the different manners of articulation involved in the production of human speech sounds. 3.1- Stops According to Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics (2002:515) explains that, stops also known as plosive sound is a consonant speech sound which is produced by stopping the airstream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. From the above passage I can conclude that, plosives or stops sounds are only produced when we there is a block in the airstream, for example the bilabial stop sound [p] for the Umbundu word pita which means pass. 3.2-Fricatives Yule (2006:36) argues that, fricatives speech sounds are produced by almost blocking the airstream and having the push through the very narrow opening, as the air passes through a friction should be felt. From the above affirmation I can add that fricatives sounds are produced when there is a short distance between two articulators so that the airstream is not completely closed but

obstructed enough that a turbulent airflow is produced. For example the voiced sound [v] for the Umbundu word valwa, which means many. 3.3-Affricatives Affricatives are consonant speech sound produced by stooping airstream from the lungs, and then slowly releasing it with friction, longman dictionary for language teaching and applied linguistics. From this passage I can add that, affricatives sounds have some similarities with fricatives speech sounds. For example, the voiced sound [dz], for the Umbundu word tchamal, which means not belonging to us. 3.4-Nasals Yule (2006:36) stress that, nasals speech sounds are sounds produced by allowing the airstream to flow out through the nose. For example, the voiced sound [n], for the Umbundu word nye, which means what. From this assertion I can agree that, nasals are very important part of our equipment for making speech sounds. 3.5-Liquids Liquids are speech sounds produced by letting the airstream to flow around the sides of the tongue, as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge Yule (2006:36).From this affirmation I can deduce that, liquids make a continuous sounds speech. For example, the sound [l], for the Umbundu word linga which means do. Done with the manners of articulations let us end our discussion with the organs of articulation, since they a very crucial role in the speech sounds production. 4. Organs of Articulation The organs of articulations are the physical parts of human which are very essential for the production of speech sound, three major organs are scientifically known: The mouth, the throat and the chest or the thorax, each of these organs has many vocal muscles, which are also known as the articulators, that is to say that all the sounds that we make when we speak result from the constriction of these physical vocal muscles taking part in the speech sounds production.

4.1. The mouth According to Roach (2009:9) in the mouth we have the following articulators with the respective sounds that are produced: The soft palate, by allowing the air to pass through the nose and through the mouth we produce the velar sounds [k] and [g], the hard palate for the palatal sound [j], the alveolar ridge for the alveolar sounds [t], [d] and [n], the tongue and the teeth for dental sounds [] and []. 4.2. The throat Crystal (2003:124) explains that inside the throat we find: The upper part which is called the pharynx and the lower part which is known as the larynx which contains the vocal folds commonly called the vocal cords. 4.3. The chest or thorax In the chest or thorax we find the lungs which play a very important role in the process of speech sound production. Longman active study dictionary of English, defines the lungs as the two breathing organs in the chest of man or certain animal.
Before any sound can be produced at all, there has to be a source of energy. In speech, the energy takes the form of a stream of air, which has in normal Circumstances been Set in motion by the lungs. Crystal (2003:124)

From the above definition and quotation I can conclude that the organs of articulation have primary and secondary functions, Scovel (2009:41) adds that, whereas the majority of this organs have primarily evolved to serve essential biological functions such as respiration and ingestion, a few of them have adopted secondary functions connected with the enhancement of speech articulation. So far, we have come to the end of our discussion concerned with where and how are human speech sounds produced and which organs of articulation take part in the process of speech sounds production, it is very important to design its conclusion, we may find it on the next page.

Conclusion
As with any sort of academic written work, we should not come to the end of a written academic work without designing a conclusion of what we have dealt with, although with some limitations, that is just to show that it may not be possible to write everything on an assignment topic. This assignment has been divided four sections, in the first section dealt with differentiating some key terminologies; in the second section dealt with a discussion on the places of articulations; the third section dealt also with a discussion on manners of articulation and then the fourth and the very last section dealt with a brief discussion concerned with the organs of articulation. I hope that, this academic written work will be useful to English Language Teaching teachers and students at ISCED, in regard to articulatory phonetics aspects. Moreover, I would like to encourage my ELT colleagues to keep on doing researches, especially in the phonetics and phonology field of study, on the behalf of the language learning and teaching process.

Bibliography
Crystal, D. (2003) The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Longman Active Study Dictionary of English (2009). London: Longman Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (2002). Essex: Pearson Education Limited Roach, P. (2009) Phonetics and Phonology (4th edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Scovel, T. (2009) Psycholinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press Yule, G. (2006) The Study of Languages. (3rd edition) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press