DEVELOPMENT Development

a process of change that involves an improvement in the quality of life as perceived by the people undergoing change. It is usually focused on reducing poverty. The nature of development will vary, depending on the context in which it is occurring. Indicator of development Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - this is the value of all goods and services produced within a country. It is usually measured in US$ and calculated per capita. This makes comparisons between different countries easier. National Product (GNP). The difference is that GNP also includes goods and services produced by that country overseas. Infant mortality: this is the number of infants that die prematurely. You need to check the figures because it could be the numbers that die before they are one or five. It could be as a percentage of the births or a per thousand figure. Just check carefully before using. Birth Rate: a simple one, the number of people born per thousand people per year. A high birth rate indicates a low level of development due to a lack of contraception or the need for large families. (See The Demographic Transition Model in the Population section.) A low birth rate indicates a high level of development. Death rate: this is number of people who die per thousand people per year. It will be a clear indicator of the level of health care, quality of water, sanitation, accommodation, and food Literacy rates: this is the percentage of people that can read and write. Clear indication of the availability of education and also the extent to which people can get into education for example in India many children cannot get in to school as they have to work to help support their families. Human suffering index - The country is ranked from 0 to 10 for each of the following indicators (0 is very good, 10 very bad):

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2) 3)

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5) 6)

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Life expectancy Daily calorie supply Access to clean water Per capital income Civil rights Political freedom Inflation Communications Percentage in secondary school Immunisation of infants

The countries scores are totalled and then ranked accordingly. The worst a country could have is 100, the best 0.Using this score the worst countries would be Mozambique, Somalia and Afghanistan whilst the best would be Denmark, The Netherlands and Belgium. 8) Human development index: This uses fewer indicators than the above. It simply uses wealth, health and education. It is calculated each year. The best country get "1" the worst "0". This score is compared to GDP tables.

9) If a country is higher up the HDI table than the GDP table then it must be successfully investing in health and education. If it is below then there is room for improvement. MEDC An MEDC is a More Economically Developed Country. Therefore, MEDCs are relatively rich countries. LEDC

A LEDC is a Less Economically Developed Country. Therefore, LEDCs are relatively poor countries. NIC

Newly industrializing Country, LEDCs which are developing manufacturing industries, usually with the help of Trans-national Corporations attracted by cheap labour and Government Incentives. e.g. South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Brazil, India. Brandt N-S divide line

Because it assumes that every country in the North is wealthier that the countries in the South. Except for Australia and New Zealand and South Africa. The expression "North-South divide" is still in common use, but the terms "North" and "South" are already somewhat outdated. As nations become economically developed, they may become part of the "North", regardless of geographical location, while any other nations which do not qualify for "developed" status are in effect deemed to be part of the "South." Crude death rate

The number of deaths in a specified period (usually one year) divided by the average total population in that period (usually taken as the mid-year population). The rate is normally expressed per 1,000 populations. Crude birth rate

The number of births in a specified period (usually one year) divided by the average total population in that period (usually taken as the mid-year population). The rate is normally expressed per 1,000 populations. Infant mortality rate

The number of deaths to infants under one year of age in a given hear per 1,000 live births in the same year. Life expectancy

The average number of years that individuals are expected to live depending on where and when they are born and spend their lives. May be derived on national, regional or local scale.

Literacy rate

The literacy rate is the percentage of people with the ability to read and write.
Human development index HDI or The Human Development Index is a comparative measure of factors like life expectancy, literacy, education and standards of living, well-being, especially child welfare for all countries worldwide. The index also determines if a country is not-developed, developing or developed. It can go from 0 - zero development, to 1 - the highest level of development. GDP per capita

GDP per capita divides the population by the GDP allowing us to compare countries more easily. GDP is the total value of goods and services that a country produces in a year. Choropleth map

A choropleth map is a thematic map in which areas are shaded or patterned in proportion to the measurement of the statistical variable being displayed on the map, such as population density or per-capita income. It provides an easy way to visualize how a measurement varies across a geographic area.

Scatter graph

It is easy to compare two different indicators of development, using the figures for a number of different countries to plot a scatter graph. Scatter graphs show whether there is any connection between the two sets of figures. This is called a correlation and it can be either positive or negative. The graph below shows the comparison between life expectancy and population per doctor. The figures for five countries have been plotted and a "line of best fit" drawn in. This slopes down from left to right, meaning that the figures show a negative correlation.


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Correlations

A positive correlation slopes up from the left axis to the top right hand corner of the graph. This tells us that if one of the indicators increases, for instance the GNP, then the other (literacy rate perhaps) will also increase.

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A negative correlation slopes from the left axis down towards the right of the graph. This tells us that if one indicator increases, for instance the number of people per doctor, the other indicator will fall (in this case the life expectancy).

Poverty

Poverty is a condition in which people cannot provide themselves with basic needs for survival, such as clean water, food, and shelter. The exact income that is required to provide for basic needs varies from country to country, and politicians like to argue about details when determining who qualifies for foreign aid or welfare. However, the international definition of the "poverty line" is $2 per day at purchasing power parity. See absolute/dire poverty versus relative poverty and purchasing power parity
Millennium development goals The millennium development goals started in September 2000 a set of eight goals that aim to halve world poverty by 2015. Having the proportion of people who suffer from extreme hunger and of people living on less than $1 (60p) a day. Achieving universal primary education. Getting rid of gender inequalities in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005 and at all levels by 2015 Reducing by 2/3s the mortality rates among children under 5 Reducing by s the ratio of women dying in childbirth. Combating the spread of HIV and AIDS, and the incidence of malaria and other major diseases Ensuring environmental sustainability: reducing by half the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and reversing the loss of environmental resources. Securing a global partnership for development, working together on debt, trade, public health, aid and technology issues to promote economic growth and poverty reduction.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Trade

A branch of geography concerned with the relations of physical environment and economic conditions to the manufacture and distribution of commodities.

Fair trade

... is an independent consumer label which appears on products as a gurantee that disadvantaged producers are getting a better deal. Today, more than 5 million farmers, workers and their families across 49 developing countries benefit from the International fairtrade system. The fairtrade foundation is an independent body that awards the fairtrade mark to products which meet international Fairtrade standards. Sustainable development

Improving peoples standard of living, in a way that will last for the long term, without seriously damaging the environment. Resource

Anything that we use for survival in the first place and wealth generation in the second. May be natural, economic or human.

Pros and Cons of using different indicators of development.

Disadvantages of using GDP/GNP and an indicator:

Advantages of using GDP/GNP as an indicator:

A useful figure for comparing countries. Often used to Can hide inequalities as it does not show the distribution of wealth. rank countries to establish a fair system of aid payments.

Is a good indicator of the state of the economy and provision of services.

Can be manipulated by governments who want to appear poor to collect more aid.

Fairly easy to calculate from official government figures.

Does not take into account subsistence or informal economies which are very important in less developed countries.

Advantages of using infant mortality as an indicator:

Disadvantages of using infant mortality as an indicator:

Indicates quality of health care, water quality, food supply.

Hard to get an accurate figure as many births in the less developed countries would be un-registered.

Very easy indicator to understand.

Evidence from some countries that the level of infant mortality is well above that disclosed.

Focuses on one of the most significant aspects of development.

High infant mortality could be a result of social or political factors. For example in China the figure would be very high because of the countries one child policy.

Advantages of using birth rate as an indicator:

Disadvantages of using birth rate as an indicator:

Clear indicator of a countries level of development.

Can be affected by population policies such as China's one child policy.

Can be used for predicting the future situation and planning accordingly.

Figures in less developed countries not necessarily accurate.

Advantages of using death rate as an indicator:

Disadvantages of using death rate as an indicator:

Indicates level of health care provision, water quality, sanitation, and living conditions.

Does not actually tell us what is responsible for the high death rate. For example a high death rate could be a result of a natural disaster not poor health care.

An easy to use indicator.

Very difficult to get accurate figure from the less developed world.

Advantages of using literacy rate as an Disadvantages of using literacy rate as an indicator: indicator:

Indicates the amount of education on offer.

Takes no notice of other skills the people may have which are equally valuable - for example a good understanding of farming techniques.

Shows how many children could/couldn't attend school.

When used on its own doesn't tell us whether the figure is a consequence of too few schools or the fact that children are having to work.

What are the characteristics of MEDCs and LEDCs?

MEDC - More Economically Developed Country -> Examples) UK, USA, France, Germany, Spain, China, Japan etc. -> They tend to have a better economy, providing good quality services, they also have better quality goods like food etc. They export and import a lot too. They also have lower birth rates because they have contraception more widely available and women tend to work more than have large families. MEDC's have better health care as well. Better transport, health, working conditions, salaries, jobs, sanitation etc. LEDC - Less Economically Developed Country -> Examples) Brazil, Chile, Peru (and other parts of south America), parts of Africa, places like Zambia, Zimbabwe, Bangladesh etc. ->They tend to have a worse economy than MEDC's. They also tend to have poverty as a current issue. They often have poor working conditions and salaries in work places which tend to be factories or farms. They also tend to have high birth rates because contraception isn't available for them. This encourages schemes like family planning schemes. The women tend to have jobs on farms if they live in rural areas as oppose to urban areas and they have large families. People in rural areas are more likely to die of disease because they have poor sanitation and health facilities. The health facilities are sometimes within 10 miles of a village and the people often have to walk because they don't have sufficient transport (this is a huge problem especially for pregnant women). Children also have to work as well. When they are old enough they go to urban areas to find work and send money back to their families because they don't make much money in rural areas.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

What are the causes of poverty? DEBT UNFAIR TRADE STATUS OF WOMEN EDUCATION WAR ILL-HEALTH AND DISEASE What can be done to reduce poverty?

MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS TETONICS (earthquakes and volcanoes)

The eruptions from these volcanoes may be a pyroclastic flow rather than a lava flow. A pyroclastic flow is a mixture of hot steam, ash, rock and dust. A pyroclastic flow can roll down the sides of a volcano at very high speeds and with temperatures of over 400C.

Convection currents

The Earth's Tectonic Plates all move very slowly on the mantle, meeting along the four main boundaries that can be found in the next section. The plates move due to convection currents in the mantle. These are hot currents of molten rock that slowly move within the mantle and cause the plates above them to move, usually by as little as one or two centimetres each year.

Movements in the semi-molten rocks of upper mantle, caused by rising currents of hot rock

Tectonic activity

Activity that occurs as a result of tectonic plate movement, for example, earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain building in general.

Plate boundary

Continental currents Oceanic crust

There are two different types of crust: continental crust, which carries land, and oceanic crust, which carries water.

Constructive margin 1. 2 plates moving away 2. Magma rises between them forming a new crust 3. Causes a. Mid-ocean ranges

4. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2.

b. Volcanoes-sheld volcanoes c. Earthquakes Not violent Destructive margin Oceanic and continental plates collide Oceanic crust gets destroyed in mantle Newly formed molten rock Collision margin 2 continental plates colliding creates crust to fold and mountain ranges Earthquakes occur, no volcanic actrivity Conservative margin

Plate s slide horizontally against each other (one sliding slower then the other) earthquakes may occur.due to plates tendency to stick they would slid smoothly aginst each other Continental drift

He argued that todays continents once formed a single landmass, which he named Pangaea (Greek for "all land"). It broke into pieces due to the weaknesses in the earth's crust as they were made up of less dense materials, which drifted centimeter by centimeter over millions of years until they arrived at where they are now

Seismic wave Volcano

Volcanoes form when magma reaches the Earth's surface, causing eruptions of lava and ash. They occur at destructive (compressional) and constructive (tensional) plate boundaries. The immediate effects of volcanic eruptions can be devastating, but they may be beneficial in the long term.

Lava

When magma reaches the Earth's surface it is called lava. When the lava cools, it forms rock.

molten lava

Magma

Earthquake

Earthquakes are caused by the release of built-up pressure inside the Earth's crust. An earthquake's power is measured on the Richter scale using an instrument called a 'seismometer'.The effects of an earthquake can be devastating - they can destroy settlements, change landscapes, and cause many deaths.

Epicenter

Is the point on the Earths surface immeadietly above the focus Focus

The point where the earthquake starts

Seismometer

A machine with a seismograph on a revolving drum. Seismograph

Records movement in the ground Richter scale

A numerical scale for expressing the magnitude of an earthquake on the basis of seismograph oscillations. The more destructive earthquakes typically have magnitudes between about 5.5 and 8.9; the scale is logarithmic and a difference of one represents an approximate thirtyfold difference in magnitude Mountain

Fold mountains occur near convergent or compressional plate boundaries. Examples of fold mountains include the Alps, Rockies, Andes and Himalayas.

What is the structure of the earth?

The structure of the Earth

The Earth is made up of four distinct layers: 1. The inner core is in the centre and is the hottest part of the Earth. It is solid and made up of iron and nickel with temperatures of up to 5,500C. With its immense heat energy, the inner core is like the engine room of the Earth. 2. The outer core is the layer surrounding the inner core. It is a liquid layer, also made up of iron and nickel. It is still extremely hot, with temperatures similar to the inner core. 3. The mantle is the widest section of the Earth. It has a diameter of approximately 2,900 km. The mantle is made up of semi-molten rock called magma. In the upper parts of the mantle the rock is hard, but lower down the rock is soft and beginning to melt. 4. The crust is the outer layer of the earth. It is a thin layer between 0-60 km thick. The crust is the solid rock layer upon which we live.

What is the link between plate boundaries, earthquakes and volcanoes? What is the theory of plate tectonics?

The earths surface is made up of rigid blocks called plates. These plates fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. At their edges, these plates may be colliding, puuling apart or sliding causing volcanoes, mouantains and deep sea trenches. How can volcanoes be monitored?

Key techniques for monitoring a volcano

Monitoring techniques Seismometers are used to detect earthquakes. Thermal imaging techniques and satellite cameras can be used to detect heat around a volcano. Gas samples may be taken and chemical sensors used to measure sulfur levels.

Warning signs Hundreds of small earthquakes are caused as magma rises up through cracks in the Earth's crust. Temperatures around the volcano rise as activity increases. When a volcano is close to erupting it starts to release gases. The higher the sulfur content of these gases, the closer the volcano is to erupting.

What effects do volcanic eruptions have?

Positive and negative effects of an eruption

Negative Many lives can be lost as a result of a volcanic eruption. If the ash and mud from a volcanic eruption mix with rain water or melting

Positive The dramatic scenery created by volcanic eruptions attracts tourists. This brings income to an area. The lava and ash deposited during an eruption breaks down to provide valuable nutrients for

Positive the soil. This creates very fertile soil which is good for agriculture The high level of heat and activity inside the Earth, close to a volcano, can provide opportunities for generating geothermal energy.

Negative snow, fast moving mudflows are created. These flows are calledlahars. Lava flows and lahars can destroy settlements and clear areas of woodland or agriculture. Human and natural landscapes can be destroyed and changed forever.

What can be done to protect from volcanic eruptions? How can people be protected from earthquake? What are the causes of earthquakes? What effects earthquakes have?

Social impacts Economic impacts Environmental impacts People may be killed or The built landscape may be injured. Homes may be Shops and business may be destroyed. Fires can spread due Short-term destroyed. Transport and destroyed. Looting may take to gas pipe explosions. Fires (immediate) communication links may be place. The damage to transport can damage areas of woodland. impacts disrupted. Water pipes may and communication links can Landslides may occur. burst and water supplies make trade difficult. Tsunamis may cause flooding may be contaminated. in coastal areas. The cost of rebuilding a settlement is high. Investment Disease may spread. People Long-term in the area may be focused Important natural and human may have to be re-housed, impacts only on repairing the damage landmarks may be lost. sometimes in refugee camps. caused by the earthquake. Income could be lost.

Case studies

VOLCANOES : Chances Peak, Montserrat, 1995-97 - an LEDC

Montserrat is a small island in the Caribbean. There is a volcanic area located in the south of the island on Soufriere Hills called Chances Peak. Before 1995 it had been dormant for over 300 years. In 1995 the volcano began to give off warning signs of an eruption (small earthquakes and eruptions of dust and ash). Once Chances Peak had woken up it then remained active for five years. The most intense eruptions occurred in 1997. During this time, Montserrat was devastated by pyroclastic flows. The small population of the island (11,000 people) was evacuated in 1995 to the north of Montserrat as well as to neighbouring islands and the UK. Despite the evacuations, 19 people were killed by the eruptions as a small group of people chose to stay behind to watch over their crops. Volcanic eruptions and lahars have destroyed large areas of Montserrat. The capital, Plymouth, has been covered in layers of ash and mud. Many homes and buildings have been destroyed, including the only hospital, the airport and many roads. The graphic shows the progress of the eruption and its impact on the island.

Montserrat - eruption progress and impact

Short-term responses and results

Evacuation. Abandonment of the capital city. The British government gave money for compensation and redevelopment. Unemployment rose due to the collapse of the tourist industry.

Long-term responses and results

An exclusion zone was set up in the volcanic region. A volcanic observatory was built to monitor the volcano. New roads and a new airport were built. Services in the north of the island were expanded. The presence of the volcano resulted in a growth in tourism. Volcanic activity has calmed down in recent years and people have begun to return to the island. You might be asked to consider the values and attitudes or opinions of people involved in the eruption, such as refugees or aid workers for example.

Case study: Mount St Helens 1980 (MEDC)

Map showing location of Mount St Helens

Mount St Helens is on the plate boundary between the Juan de Fuca plate and North American plate. When it erupted it permanently changed the surrounding landscape.

Effects of the eruption

Primary effects Nue ardente (hot ash and gas) destroyed forests and logging camps. 63 people were killed, mainly by poisonous gases. Lahars (mudflows of ash and water) covered an extensive area surrounding the volcano. Secondary effects Ash blocked rivers destroying popular fishing sites and causing flooding. This in turn destroyed crops and livestock. Flooding destroyed communications such as road and railway bridges. Sediment carried downstream ruined barge transport on the Columbia River.

Short-term responses and results

Communications such as roads and bridges were repaired. People were rehoused.

Long-term responses and results

Soil fertility improved due to the ash deposits. The volcano is now more carefully monitored. Tourism has increased, boosting the local economy.