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Chapter 2. Animal Tissues

Animals are multicellular heterotrophs whose cells lack cell walls. At some point during their lives, all animals are capable of movement, although not all animals have muscles they use for this. In the most commonly encountered animals, the mobile stage is the adult, although some animals (such as corals and sponges) have sessile (or nonmobile) adult phases and mobile juvenile forms. Both animal and plant evolutionary history show the development of multicellularity and the move from water to land (as well as a secondary adaptation back to water, for example dolphins, whales, duckweed, and elodea). Animals developed external or internal skeletons to provide support, skin to prevent or lessen water loss, muscles that allowed them to move in search of food, brains and nervous systems for integration of stimuli, and internal digestive systems. Organs in animals are composed of a number of different tissue types. For example, the stomach has epithelial tissue making linings and secreting gastric juices, connective tissues. Plants are simpler organisms than animals, having three organ systems and fewer organs than do vertebrate animals. Organs are composed of tissues, which are in turn composed of cells. Plants have three tissue types: ground, dermal, and vascular. Animals have four: epithelial, connective, muscle, and bone.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Epithelial tissue is made of closely-packed cells arranged in flat sheets. Epithelia form the surface of the skin and line the various cavities and tubes of the body. The epithelia that form the inner lining of blood and lymph vessels are called endothelia. The apical surface of epithelial cells is exposed to the "external environment", the lumen of the organ or the air. The basolateral surface is exposed to the internal environment (ECF). The entire sheet of epithelial cells is attached to a layer of extracellular matrix that is called the basement membrane or, better (because it is not a membrane in the biological sense), the basal lamina. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines body cavities. Functions include lining, protecting, and forming glands. Three types of epithelium occur: Squamous epithelium consists of flattened cells with a centrally located oval or spherical nucleus. It forms the inner lining of lungs alveoli, heart, blood vessels, lining of eye lens, outer and inner lining of Bowmans capsule. Cuboidal epithelium consists of cube-shaped cells which are as tall as wide with a central nucleus. They often form microvilli at their free surfaces giving a brush like appearance, hence called brush bordered cuboidal epithelium. They also develop cilia in certain parts of nephrons of kidney hence called ciliated cuboidal epithelium.

Fig. 2.1. Types of epithelial tissues on the basis of arrangement of layers.

Fig. 2.2. (a) Photograph of peripheral portion of the chick blastodisc at about 33 hours of incubation. Even though there are several layers of cells visible, they are all distinct and separate simple squamous epithelium layers. (b) CS through small intestine. The tall, vertical cells seen at the top of the tissue are columnar cells (red arrow)- simple columnar epithelium (the cells at the bottom are connective tissue).

Columnar epithelium consists of elongated cells with a basally located nucleus. They also develop microvilli and cilia like the cuboidal epithelium. In the lining of the epididymis they develop nonmotile stereocilia. They are secretory in nature (glandular) in gastric glands and mucus secreting (goblet cells) in lining of the gastrointestinal tract. Any epithelium can be simple or stratified. Simple epithelium has only a single cell layer where every cells on basement membrane. Stratified epithelium has more than one layer of cells and only the deepest cells rest on the basement membrane. Pseudostratified epithelium is a single layer of cells but due to difference in the size of the cells they appear at first glance to form two layers. Functions of epithelial cells include: Movement of materials in, out or around the body. Protection of the internal environment against the external environment. Secretion of a product. Glands can be single epithelial cells, such as the goblet cells that line the intestine. Multicellular glands include the endocrine glands. Many animals have their skin composed of epithelium. Vertebrates have keratin in their skin cells to reduce water loss. Many other animals secrete mucus or other materials from their skin, such as earthworms do.
SIMPLE 1. Squamous (Lining of pleural cavity and Blood vessels) 2. Cuboidal (Bronchioles, Sweat glands) (i) Brush bordered (PCT) (ii) Germinal (Testes and Ovary) (iii)Ciliated (Nephrons) 3. Columnar (Glandular ducts, Gall bladder) (i) Ciliated (Fallopian tube) (ii) Stereociliated (Epididymis) (iii)Sensory (Retina, Tongue, Brain) STRATIFIED 1. Stratified Squamous (Buccal cavity, Oesophagus, Cornea, Vagina) (i) Keratinized (Epidermis of skin) (ii) Non-keratinized (Buccal cavity, Pharynx, Oesophagus) 2. Stratified Cuboidal (Mammary glands) 3. Stratified Columnar (Pharynx, Epiglottis) PSEUDOSTRATIFIED 1. Ciliated (Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles) 2. Pseudostratified with stereocilia (Epididymis, Urethra)

Table. 2.1. Classification of epithelial tissues.

3 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

The cells of connective tissue are embedded in a great amount of extracellular material. This matrix is secreted by the cells. It consists of protein fibers embedded in an amorphous mixture of proteinpolysaccharide (proteoglycan) molecules. Fibres in connective tissue can be divided into three types: collagen fibres, reticular fibres and elastic fibres. 1. Collagen fibres are the dominant fibre type in most connective tissues. The primary function of collagen fibres is to add strength to the connective tissue. 2. Reticular fibres are very delicate and form fine networks instead of thick bundles. They are usually not visible in histological sections but can be demonstrated by Fig. 2.3. Types of fibres in the connective tissues. using special stains.

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For example, in silver stained sections reticular fibres look like fine, black threads - coarse collagen fibres appear reddish brown in the same type of preparation. 3. Elastic fibres are coloured in fresh tissues - they are light yellow - but this colouration is only visible if large amounts of elastic fibres are present in the tissue, for example, in the elastic ligaments of the vertebral column. Connective cells are separated from one another by a non-cellular matrix. The matrix may be solid (as in bone), soft (as in loose connective tissue), or liquid (as in blood). Two types of connective tissue are Loose Connective Tissue (LCT) and Dense Connective Tissue (DCT). These two tissues are distinguished according to the Fig. 2.4. Types of dense connective tissues. relative amounts of fibres they contain. Dense connective tissues are completely dominated by fibres. They are subdivided according to the spatial arrangement of the fibres in the tissue. In dense irregular connective tissue the fibres do not show a clear orientation within the tissue but instead form a densely woven three-dimensional network. A good example is the dermis of the skin. We talk about regular dense connective tissue if the fibres run parallel to each other. Good examples of regular dense connective tissue are tendons, ligaments and the fasciae and aponeuroses of muscles. Loose connective tissue is relatively cell rich, soft and compliant. It is also rich in vessels and nerves. It is best understood as a kind of generalised connective tissue in which all connective tissue cell types may occur. Loose connective tissue may occur in some special variants: mucous connective tissue, reticular connective tissue and adipose tissue. LCT occurs beneath epithelium in skin and many internal organs, such as lungs, arteries and the urinary bladder. This tissue type also forms a protective layer over muscle, nerves, and blood vessels.

Connective tissue cells are usually divided into two groups based on their ability to move within the connective tissue. Fibrocytes (or fibroblasts) and fat cells are fixed cells. Macrophages, monocytes, lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils and mast cells are wandering cells. 1. Fibrocytes. Fibrocytes are the most common cell type in connective tissues. They are the "true" connective tissue cells. The cytoplasm of a resting (i.e. inactive) fibrocyte does not contain many organelles. This situation changes if the fibrocytes are stimulated, for example, by damage to the surrounding tissue. In this case the fibrocyte is transformed into a fibroblast, which contains large

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amounts of the organelles which are necessary for the synthesis and excretion of proteins needed to repair the tissue damage. Fibrocytes do not usually leave the connective tissue. They are, however, able to perform amoeboid movement.

2. Reticular cells.
Reticular cells are usually larger than an average fibrocyte. They are Fig. 2.5. Types of adipose connective tissues. the "fibrocytes" of reticular connective tissue and form a network of reticular fibres, for example, in the lymphoid organs. Their nuclei are typically large and lightly stained and the cytoplasm may be visible amongst the cells which are housed within the network of reticular fibres.

3. Adipocytes. Fat cells or adipocytes are fixed cells in loose connective tissue. Their main function is
the storage of lipids. If "well fed" the cytoplasm only forms a very narrow rim around a large central lipid droplet. The flattened nucleus may be found in a slightly thickened part of this cytoplasmic rim - if it is present in the section, which may not be the case since the diameter of an adipocyte (up to 100 m) is considerable larger than the thickness of typical histological sections. A "starving" adipocyte may contain multiple small lipid droplets and gradually comes to resemble a fibrocyte.

4.

Mast

cells.

Fig. 2.6. Wandering cells of the connective tissues.

Mast cells are like macrophages, lymphocytes and eosinophils - in demand when something goes wrong in the connective tissue. Quite a few of them are present in healthy connective tissue as they stand on guard and monitor the local situation. The cytoplasm of mast cells is filled by numerous large vesicles. Mast cells discharge the

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contents of these vesicles if they come in contact with antigens, for example, proteins on the surface of an invading bacterium or, in allergic reactions, in response to antigens found, for example, on the surface of pollen grains.

MUSCLE TISSUE
Muscle tissue facilitates movement of the animal by contraction of individual muscle cells (referred to as muscle fibers). Three types of muscle fibers occur in animals are skeletal (striated), smooth and cardiac. Muscle fibers are multinucleated, with the nuclei located just under the plasma membrane. Most of the cell is occupied by striated, thread-like myofibrils. Within each myofibril there are dense Z lines. A sarcomere (or muscle functional unit) extends from Z line to Z line. Each sarcomere has thick and thin filaments. The thick filaments are made of myosin and occupy the center of each sarcomere. Thin filaments are made of actin and anchor to the Z line.

1. Skeletal Muscles.
These muscles are generally attached to bones and are at work every time, as they are responsible for moving parts of the body, such as the limbs, trunk, and face, i.e. they are concerned with voluntary movements of the body. A skeletal muscle is made up of elongated cells called muscle fibres. Contraction of these fibres tend the muscle to move as a whole. Skeletal muscle fibres are grouped into dense bundles called as fascicles. A group of fascicles bound together by connective tissue to form a functional muscle. When viewed under a microscope, skeletal muscles appear to have striations (bands or stripes). This gives skeleton muscle the name of striated muscles. Mostly these muscles are under the control of the central nervous system (CNS). Since these are long and slender in appearance, they are often called as muscle fibres rather than muscle cells. Muscle fibres together with the connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves form a skeletal muscle.

2. Smooth Muscles.
These are spindle shaped, uni-nucleate, non-striated and intertwined to form a sheet of smooth muscle tissue. These are usually not under the voluntary control and are found in the internal organs such as stomach, intestine, walls of blood vessels, etc. Smooth muscle fibers are surrounded by connective tissue, but the connective tissue does not unite to form tendons as it does in skeletal muscles. Most smooth muscle cells can contract without stimulation from the nervous system. Because most of its movements cannot be consciously controlled, smooth muscles are also referred to as involuntary muscles.

Fig. 2.7. Summary of major types of tissues with their location in the human body.

3. Cardiac Muscles.
These are striated muscles but not under voluntary control. Cardiac muscles are found only inside the heart and contract without direct stimulation from the nervous system. A bundle of specialized muscle cells in the upper part of the heart sends electrical signals through cardiac muscle tissue, causing the heart to rhythmically contract and pump blood through the body. The cardiac muscle cell contains one nucleus which is located near the center so that adjacent cells form branching fibers pass the nerve impulses from cell to cell.

NERVOUS TISSUE
Nervous tissue functions in the integration of stimulus and control of response to that stimulus. Nerve cells are called neurons. Each neuron has a cell body, an axon and many dendrites. The axons of most neurons are covered with a lipid layer known as the myelin sheath. The myelin sheath both Insulates and speeds up transmission of action potentials through the axon. In the peripheral nervous system, myelin is produced by Schwann cells, which surround the axon. Gaps (nodes) in the myelin sheath along the length of the axon are known as the nodes of Ranvier. Neurons transmit nerve messages. Glial cells are in direct contact with neurons and often surround them. Cell body It is the largest part, contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm (area between the nucleus and the cell membrane). It is responsible for most of the metabolic activity of the cell, including the generation of ATP and synthesis of protein. Dendrites These are short branch extensions spreading out from the cell body. Dendrites receive stimulus (action potentials) and carry impulses from the environment or from other neurons and carry them towards the cell body. Axon It is a long fiber that carries impulses away from the cell body. Each neuron has only one axon. The axon ends in a series of small swellings called axon terminals. The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system. Humans have about 100 billion neurons in their brain alone! While variable in size and shape, all neurons have three parts. Dendrites receive information from another cell and transmit the message to the cell body. The cell body contains the nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles typical of eukaryotic cells. The axon conducts messages away from the cell body.

SKIN
Skin is an organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of epithelial tissues that guard underlying muscles and organs. As the interface with the surroundings, it plays the most important role in protecting against pathogens. Its other main functions are insulation and temperature regulation, sensation and vitamin D and B synthesis. Skin is considered one of the most important parts of the body. Skin has pigmentation, or melanin, provided by melanocytes, which absorb some of the potentially dangerous ultraviolet radiation in sunlight. It also contains DNA repair enzymes which help to reverse UV damage, and people who lack the genes for these enzymes suffer high rates of skin cancer. One form predominantly produced by UV light, malignant melanoma, is particularly invasive, causing it to spread quickly, and can often be deadly. Mammalian skin often contains hairs, which in sufficient density is called fur. The hair mainly serves to augment the insulation the skin provides, but can also serve as a secondary sexual characteristic or as camouflage. The skin is often known as the largest organ of the human body. This applies to exterior surface, as it covers the body, appearing to have the largest surface area of all the organs. Moreover, it applies to weight, as it weighs more than any single internal organ, accounting for about 15 percent of body weight. For the average adult human, the skin has a surface area of between 1.5-2.0 square meters, most of it is between 2-3 mm thick. The average square inch of skin holds 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more than a thousand nerve endings.

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Skin is composed of three primary layers: the epidermis, which provides waterproofing and serves as a barrier to infection; the dermis, which serves as a location for the appendages of skin; and the hypodermis (subcutaneous adipose layer), which is called the basement membrane.

Epidermis.
Epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin. It forms the waterproof, protective wrap over the body's surface and is made up of stratified squamous epithelium with an underlying basal lamina. The outermost epidermis consists of stratified squamous epithelium with an underlying connective tissue section, or dermis, and a hypodermis, or basement membrane. It contains no blood vessels, and is nourished by diffusion from the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells and Merkels cells. Epidermis is divided into several layers where cells are formed through mitosis at the innermost layers. They move up the strata changing shape and composition as they differentiate and become filled Fig. 2.8. Section of skin showing the position of layers and with keratin. They eventually reach glands. the top layer called stratum corneum and become sloughed off, or desquamated. This process is called keratinization and takes place within weeks. This keratinized layer of skin is responsible for keeping water in the body and keeping other harmful chemicals and pathogens out, making skin a natural barrier to infection. The outermost layer of epidermis consists of 25 to 30 layers of dead cells. Epidermis is divided into the following 5 sublayers or strata: Stratum corneum Stratum lucidum Stratum granulosum Stratum spinosum Stratum germinativum (also called "stratum basale")

Dermis.
The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis that consists of connective tissue and cushions the body from stress and strain. The dermis is tightly connected to the epidermis by a basement membrane. It also harbors many nerve endings that provide the sense of touch and heat. It contains the hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, apocrine glands and blood vessels. The Fig. 2.9. Enlarged view of epidermis showing blood vessels in the dermis provide nourishment the location of melanocytes. and waste removal to its own cells as well as the Stratum basale of the epidermis. The dermis is structurally divided into two areas: a superficial area

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adjacent to the epidermis, called the papillary region, and a deep thicker area known as the reticular region.

(a) Papillary region. The papillary region is composed of loose areolar connective tissue. It is named
for its fingerlike projections called papillae, which extend toward the epidermis. Dermal papillae contain capillaries, bare nerve endings, Meissner corpuscles and Merkel discs. The papillae provide the dermis with a bumpy surface that interdigitates with the epidermis, strengthening the connection between the two layers of skin. In the palms, fingers, soles, and toes, the influence of the papillae projecting into the epidermis forms contours in the skin's surface. These are called friction ridges, because they help the hand or foot to grasp by increasing friction. Friction ridges occur in patterns (see fingerprint) that are genetically determined and are therefore unique to the individual, making it possible to use fingerprints or footprints as a means of identification.

(b) Reticular region. The reticular region lies deep in the papillary region and is usually much thicker.
It is composed of dense irregular connective tissue, and receives its name from the dense concentration of collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers that weave throughout it. These protein fibers give the dermis its properties of strength, extensibility, and elasticity. Located within the reticular region are also the roots of the hair, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, receptors, nails, and blood vessels. Tattoo ink is injected into the dermis. Stretch marks from pregnancy are also located in the dermis. The hypodermis is not part of the skin, and lies below the dermis. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and issue and elastin as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue and elastin.. The main cell types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (the hypodermis contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body. Microorganisms like Staphylococcus epidermidis colonize the skin surface. These microorganisms serve as ecoorgan. The density of skin flora depends on region of the skin. The disinfected skin surface gets recolonized from bacteria residing in the deeper areas of the hair follicle, gut and urogenital openings. Skin Glands
Sudoriferous glands: Secrete sweat. Sebaceous glands: Secrete oily material, the sebum which keeps the hair and skin smooth, soft, supple and water-proof. Mammary gland: Modified apocrine sweat glands, functional in females only and secrete milk. Meibomian glands: Also called tarsal glands. These add a film of oil over the cornea. Zeis glands: Pours oily substance in the follicles of eyelashes. Ceruminous glands: Secrete ear-wax or cerumen into the ear canal. Perineal glands: Also called as scent glands. They are present around the genital organs and secrete pheromones.

Functions of Skin. 1. Protection: Skin is an anatomical barrier between the internal and external environment in bodily
defense; Langerhans cells in the skin are part of the adaptive immune system 2. Sensation: Skin contains a variety of nerve endings that react to heat, cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury; see somatosensory system and touch. 3. Heat regulation: The skin contains a blood supply far greater than its requirements which allows precise control of energy loss by radiation, convection and conduction. Dilated blood vessels increase perfusion and heat loss while constricted vessels greatly reduce cutaneous blood flow and conserve heat. Erector pili muscles are significant in animals. 4. Control of evaporation: The skin provides a relatively dry and impermeable barrier to fluid loss. Loss of this function contributes to the massive fluid loss in burns. 5. Aesthetics and communication: Others see our skin and can assess our mood, physical state and attractiveness.

10 6. Storage and synthesis: Skin acts as a storage centre for lipids and water, as well as a means of
synthesis of vitamin D and B by action of UV on certain parts of the skin. This synthesis is linked to pigmentation, with darker skin producing more vitamin B than D, and vice versa. 7. Excretion: The concentration of urea is 1/130th that of urine. Excretion by sweating is at most a secondary function to temperature regulation. 8. Absorption: Oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide can diffuse into the epidermis in small amounts, some animals using their skin for their sole respiration organ. In addition, medicine can be administered through the skin, by ointments or by means of adhesive patch, such as the nicotine patch or iontophoresis. The skin is an important site of transport in many other organisms.

COMPETITION DESK # 02
1. The gland cells and nerve plexus lie (a) in between outer and inner epithelial layer (b) in the outer epithelial layers (c) in the inner epithelial layers (d) amidst ectodermal cells 2. Human skin has a keratinized and waterimpermeable layer of flattened cells. This is called stratum (a) lucidum (b) corneum (c) malpighi (d) granulosum 3. The epidermis of mammals is characterized by the absence of (a) mucous glands (b) femoral glands (c) poison glands (d) all of these 4. Basic unit of muscle contraction is (a) actin (b) myosin (c) sarcomere (d) tropomyosin 5. The base of the placoid scale is attached to stratum compactum by (a) subcutaneous fibres (b) laxum fibres (c) Sharpeys fibres (d) fibres of stratum Malpighi 6. Cells of peritoneum comprise (a) ciliated epithelium (b) columnar epithelium (c) glandular epithelium (d) squamous epithelium 7. Endothelium lining a blood vessel is formed of (a) ciliated epithelium (b) columnar epithelium (c) cuboidal epithelium (d) simple squamous epithelium 8. When a person is exposed to cold surrounding which of the following does not occur? (a) Secretion of adrenal medulla and thyroid increase (b) Shivering occurs (c) Vasoconstriction in skin vessels supplying blood to hairs (d) Heart beat and volume of blood per stroke increases 9. The term blubber refers to (a) a substitute for natural rubber (b) a subcutaneous deposition of fat in whale (c) none of these (d) the irregular heart beat sounds 10. Tendons and ligaments belong to (a) muscular tissue (b) epithelial tissue (c) fibrous connective tissue (d) areolar connective tissue 11. Mast cells secrete (a) serotonin (c) histamine (b) heparin (d) all of these

12. A tissue in which matrix is the source of structural and functional performance is (a) muscular (b) epithelial (c) connective (d) nervous 13. Which of the following are dermal in origin? (a) sebaceous glands (b) mammary glands

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(c) Piscean glands (d) none of these 14. Which of the following muscles are responsible for moving and shaking of the skin? (a) arrector pili (b) collagen fibres (c) Paniculus carnosus (d) sphincter muscles 15. The surface of skin that is heavily used becomes thicker and tougher and is full of (a) eledin (b) keratohyalin (c) keratin (d) albumin 16. Derivative of sweat gland is (a) Molls gland (b) scent glands (c) sebaceous glands(d) mammary glands 17. Proprio receptors respond to (a) mechanical stimuli (b) chemical stimuli (c) odour (d) none of the above 18. Which of the following layer is the outermost one of the skin with dead cells? (a) Stratum lucidum (b) Stratum corneum (c) Stratum spinosum (d) Stratum granulosum 19. Stratum corneum is (a) dead mid-dermal layer (b) dead and innermost dermal layer (c) dead outermost epidermal layer (d) outermost dermal layer 20. Stratum lucidum accumulates a shining substance called (a) luciferin (b) cardiolipin (c) cerumen (d) eleiden 21. In mammals melanocytes give protection from (CBSE 2002) (a) UV rays (b) Infrared rays (c) X-rays (d) visible light 22. One of the following is scent gland of mammals (CBSE 2000) (a) Bartholin (b) anal (c) prostate (d) adrenal 23. Pacinian corpuscles occur in the skin of certain parts of body in mammals. These are (AIIMS 1998) (a) type of glands (b) pain receptors (c) naked tactile receptors (d) encapsulated pressure receptors 24. Sweat glands, in human skin, are located in the (AIIMS 1996) (a) dermis of skin (b) glandular layer of epidermis (c) malpighian layer of epidermis (d) subdermal layer of fat cells. 25. The horns of Rhinoceros are composed of (AIIMS 1996) (a) bone (b) cartilage (c) chitin (d) keratin 26. Camouflage of Chameleon is associated with (AIIMS 1995) (a) chromosome (b) chromomere (c) chromoplast (d) chromatopore 27. Which of the following layer of epidermis in man provides the main protection of body against water loss and the entry of disease causing organisms? (AIIMS 1994) (a) Stratum spongiosum (b) Stratum corneum (c) Stratum lucidium (d) Stratum germinativum 28. The colour of the skin is due to (AFMC 2001) (a) neutrophils (b) mesophils (c) melanocytes (d) basophils 29. The receptors for touch superficially present in the skin are called (BHU 1997) (a) Pacinian corpuscles (b) Krauses end bulbs (c) Meissners corpuscles (d) Stratum lucidium. 30. The deeper layer of the skin of vertebrates is called (BHU 1996) (a) dermis (b) cutaneous tissue (c) epidermis (d) none of these. 31. Stratum lucidum is found in (BHU 1995) (a) dermis and they release keratin

12 (b) epidermis and situated below the

stratum corneum (c) dermis and secrete keratin (d) epidermis and originates from hair follicle. 32. Epidermis is specialized for (CPMT 1998) (a) respiration (b) absorption (c) protection (d) all of these 33. One of the following is an example of cutaneous glands (CPMT 1998) (a) Gastric (b) Pancreas (c) Sebaceous (d) Salivary 34. Exposed surface of the human body is covered by the tissue (CPMT 1998) (a) glandular epithelium (b) keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (c) ciliated epithelium (d) dermis 35. Inner lining of gut, stomach and liver is made up of (CPMT 1997) (a) simple squamous epithelium (b) simple columnar epithelium (c) simple cuboidal epithelium (d) all of these 36. Which of these is not an animal tissue? (a) connective (b) xylem (c) epithelial (d) nervous 37. Tissues are made up of (a) groups of cells that perform a different set of functions (b) collections of cells that perform similar or related functions (c) subcellular structures that aid in the performance of the cells role (d) none of these 38. Which of these is not a function of epithelial tissue? (a) covering surfaces (b) secretion (c) support of the body (d) lining internal exchange areas 39. Layered epithelial tissue is referred to as which of these? (a) squamous (b) stratified (c) voluntary (d) pseudostratified

40. Which of these cell types covers the inside of the mouth? (a) squamous epithelium(b) cartilage (c) blood (d) cuboidal epithelium 41. Protection of the body from infectious organisms is accomplished by which of these tissues? (a) bone (b) muscle (c) nerve (d) blood 42. Linking of bone to bone in a skeletal system is accomplished by which of these tissues? (a) epithelial (b) connective (c) muscle (d) nervous 43. Cells that line the tubules in the kidney make up which of these tissues? (a) adipose (b) squamous epithelium (c) cuboidal epithelium (d) stratified epithelium 44. The storage of fat is accomplished by which of these cell types? (a) adipose (b) squamous epithelium (c) cuboidal epithelium (d) stratified epithelium 45. Glands are composed of which of these tissue types? (a) epithelium (b) connective (c) muscle (d) nervous 46. Hard parts of the body would be made of which of these cell/tissue types? (a) blood (b) bone (c) muscle (d) nerves 47. Bone acts as a reservoir for which of these elements? (a) carbon (b) nitrogen (c) calcium (d) hydrogen 48. The blood cells that transport oxygen within the body are (a) macrophages (b) erythrocytes (c) platelets (d) leukocytes 49. Contraction of your heart is accomplished by which of these cell types?

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(a) cardiac (c) smooth (b) skeletal (d) both a and b 50. Contractions of the uterus during birth are accomplished by which of these cell types? (a) cardiac (b) skeletal (c) smooth (d) both b and c

ANSWERS # 02
1. a 2. b 3. d 4. c 5. c 11. d 12. c 13. c 14. c 15. c 21. a 22. b 23. d 24. a 25. d 31. b 32. d 33. c 34. b 35. b 41. d 42. b 43. c 44. a 45. a 6. d 7. d 8. d 9. b 16. d 17. a 18. b 19. c 26. d 27. b 28. c 29. c 36. b 37. b 38. c 39. d 46. b 47. c 48. b 49. a 10.c 20. d 30. a 40. a 50. c

EXPLANATION # 02
2. (b) The outermost cells of stratum lucidum forms a thick layer of hard scale-like, fully keratinized, flattened cells called stratum corneum. It contains hard keratin filaments (horny cells) which prevents the passage of water and solutes. In places of friction this layer becomes very thick. 9. (b) In whales and seals the fat of skin forms a thick layer called blubber which is not only reserve food but also maintains the body temperature. 20. (d) In stratum lucidum, keratohyaline granules are dissolved and transformed into eleiden which makes cells semitransparent, shiny and waterproof. It is found in places of friction, such as soles and palms. 23. (d) Pacinian corpuscles are located in deep layers of dermis of skin, joints, tendons and muscles. They respond to strong pressure and also to vibrations. 29. (c) Meissners corpuscles are located in the papillary layer of the dermis just below the epidermis, e.g. finger tip, lips and nipples. They respond to touch. 33. (c) Sebaceous glands are associated with hair follicles. These secrete oil or sebum which keeps the hair and skin smooth, soft, supple and water-proof. Emotional stress may increase the secretion of sebum.