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12.1 Introduction
Therearetwomajorcategoriesleadingtothesuddenfailureofamechanicalcomponent:materialfailureand structuralinstability,whichisoftencalledbuckling.Formaterialfailuresyouneedtoconsidertheyieldstress forductilematerialsandtheultimatestressforbrittlematerials. Thosematerialpropertiesaredeterminedbyaxialtensiontestsandaxialcompressiontestsofshortcolumns ofthematerial(seeFigure121).Thegeometryofsuchtestspecimenshasbeenstandardized.Thus, geometryisnotspecificallyaddressedindefiningmaterialproperties,suchasyieldstress.Geometryenters theproblemofdeterminingmaterialfailureonlyindirectlyasthestressesarecalculatedbyanalyticor numericalmethods.
Figure121Shortcolumnsfailduetomaterialfailure
Predictingmaterialfailuremaybeaccomplishedusinglinearfiniteelementanalysis.Thatis,bysolvingalinear algebraicsystemfortheunknowndisplacements,K=F.Thestrainsandcorrespondingstressesobtained fromthisanalysisarecomparedtodesignstress(orstrain)allowableseverywherewithinthecomponent.If thefiniteelementsolutionindicatesregionswheretheseallowablesareexceeded,itisassumedthatmaterial failurehasoccurred. Theloadatwhichbucklingoccursdependsonthestiffnessofacomponent,notuponthestrengthofits materials.Bucklingreferstothelossofstabilityofacomponentandisusuallyindependentofmaterial strength.Thislossofstabilityusuallyoccurswithintheelasticrangeofthematerial.Thetwophenomenonare governedbydifferentdifferentialequations[18].Bucklingfailureisprimarilycharacterizedbyalossof structuralstiffnessandisnotmodeledbytheusuallinearfiniteelementanalysis,butbyafiniteelement eigenvalueeigenvectorsolution,|K+mKF|m=0,wheremisthebucklingloadfactor(BLF)forthemth mode,KFistheadditionalgeometricstiffnessduetothestressescausedbytheloading,F,andmisthe associatedbucklingdisplacementshapeforthemthmode.Thespatialdistributionoftheloadisimportant, butitsrelativemagnitudeisnot.Thebucklingcalculationgivesamultiplierthatscalesthemagnitudeofthe load(upordown)tothatrequiredtocausebuckling. Slenderorthinwalledcomponentsundercompressivestressaresusceptibletobuckling.Mostpeoplehave observedwhatiscalledEulerbucklingwherealongslendermembersubjecttoacompressiveforcemoves lateraltothedirectionofthatforce,asillustratedinFigure122.Theforce,F,necessarytocausesucha bucklingmotionwillvarybyafactoroffourdependingonlyonhowthetwoendsarerestrained.Therefore, bucklingstudiesaremuchmoresensitivetothecomponentrestraintsthatinanormalstressanalysis.The
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Figure122Longcolumnsfailduetoinstability
12.2 Bucklingterminology
Thetopicofbucklingisstillunclearbecausethekeywordsofstiffness,longandslenderhavenotbeen quantified.Mostofthoseconceptsweredevelopedhistoricallyfrom1Dstudies.Youneedtounderstand thosetermseventhoughfiniteelementanalysisletsyouconductbucklingstudiesin1D,2D,and3D.Fora material,stiffnessreferstoeitheritselasticmodulus,E,ortoitsshearmodulus,G=E/(2+2v)wherevis Poissonsratio. Slenderisageometricconceptofatwodimensionalareathatisquantifiedbytheradiusofgyration.The radiusofgyration,r,hastheunitsoflengthanddescribesthewayinwhichtheareaofacrosssectionis distributedarounditscentroidalaxis.Iftheareaisconcentratedfarfromthecentroidalaxisitwillhavea greatervalueofrandagreaterresistancetobuckling.Anoncircularcrosssectionwillhavetwovaluesforits radiusofgyration.Thesectiontendstobucklearoundtheaxiswiththesmallestvalue.Theradiusofgyration, r,isdefinedas: r=(I/A)1/2, whereIandAaretheareamomentofinertia,andareaofthecrosssection.ForacircleofradiusR,youobtain r=R/2.ForarectangleoflargelengthRandsmalllengthbyouobtainrmax=R/23=0.29Randrmin=0.29 b.Solidscanhaveregionsthatareslender,andiftheycarrycompressivestressesabucklingstudyisjustified. LongisalsoageometricconceptthatisquantifiedbythenondimensionalslendernessratioL/r,whereL denotesthelengthofthecomponent.Theslendernessratioisdefinedtobelongwhenitobeystheinequality L/r>(/k)(2E/y)1/2 wherekisaconstantthatdependsontherestraintsofthetwoendsofthecolumn.Alongslendernessratiois typicallyintherangeof>120.Theaboveequationisthedividingpointbetweenlong(Euler)columnsand
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Figure123Restraintshavealargeinfluenceonthecriticalbucklingload
12.3 BucklingLoadFactor
Thebucklingloadfactor(BLF)isanindicatorofthefactorofsafetyagainstbucklingortheratioofthebuckling loadstothecurrentlyappliedloads.Table121InterpretationoftheBucklingLoadFactor(BLF)illustratesthe interpretationofpossibleBLFvaluesreturnedbySWSimulation.Sincebucklingoftenleadstobadoreven catastrophicresults,youshouldutilizeahighfactorofsafety(FOS)forbucklingloads.Thatis,thevalueof unityinTable121InterpretationoftheBucklingLoadFactor(BLF)shouldbereplacedwiththeFOSvalue.
Table121InterpretationoftheBucklingLoadFactor(BLF)
BLFValue >1 =1
BucklingStatus Remarks Bucklingnotpredicted Theappliedloadsarelessthantheestimatedcriticalloads. Bucklingpredicted Theappliedloadsareexactlyequaltothecriticalloads. Bucklingisexpected. <1 Bucklingpredicted Theappliedloadsexceedtheestimatedcriticalloads. Bucklingwilloccur. 1<BLF<0 Bucklinpossible Bucklingispredictedifyoureversetheloaddirections. 1 Bucklingpossible Bucklingisexpectedifyoureversetheloaddirections. <1 Bucklingnotpredicted Theappliedloadsarelessthantheestimatedcriticalloads, evenifyoureversetheirdirections.
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12.4 Generalbucklingconcepts
Other1Dconceptsthatrelatetostiffnessare:axialstiffness,EA/L,flexural(bending)stiffness,EI/L,and torsionalstiffness,GJ/L,whereJisthepolarmomentofinertiaofthecrosssectionalarea(J=Iz=Ix+Iy). Today,stiffnessusuallyreferstothefiniteelementstiffnessmatrix,whichcanincludealloftheabovestiffness termsplusgeneralsolidorshellstiffnesscontributions.Analyticbucklingstudiesidentifyadditionalclassesof instabilitybesidesEulerbuckling(seeFigure124).Theyincludelateralbuckling,torsionalbuckling,andother bucklingmodes.Afiniteelementbucklingstudydeterminesthelowestbucklingfactorsandtheir correspondingdisplacementmodes.Theamplitudeofabucklingdisplacementmode,|m|,isarbitraryand notuseful,buttheshapeofthemodecansuggestwhetherlateral,torsional,orotherbehaviorisgoverning thebucklingresponseofadesign
Figure124Somesamplebucklingshapes
12.5 LocalBucklingofaCantilever
12.5.1 Background
Youpreviouslywentthroughtheanalysisofahorizontaltaperedcantileversubjecttoatransverseload distributedoveritsfreeendface.Thefixedsupportatthewallincludedasemicircularsectionofthe supportingverticalsection.ThememberwasL=50inchlong,t=2inchthick,andthedepth,d,taperedfrom 3inchattheload,to9inchatthesupport.Acompleteplanestressanalysiswasconducted.Thecomputed stresseswererelativelylow.Itwasdecidedtosavematerialcostsbyreducingthethicknessofthebeam.
12.5.2 FactorofSafety
Fortheductilematerialusedherethematerialfactorofsafety(FOS)isdefinedasthematerialyieldstress dividedbythevonMiseseffectivestress.Toviewitsdistributionthedefaultresultsplotisopenedwith Results DefineFactorofSafetyPlot MaxvonMisesstress,whichisshowninFigure125.
Figure125Originalmaterialfactorofsafetyinbending
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12.5.3 Localbuckling
Ifcomponenthasaregionwheretherelativethicknesstodepthratiooflessthan1/10youshouldconsiderthe possibilityoflocalbuckling.Itusuallyisarareoccurrence,butwhenitdoesoccurtheresultscanbesudden andcatastrophic.Todoublecheckthesafetyofreducingthethicknessyoushouldaddasecondstudythat utilizestheSWSimulationbucklingfeaturetodeterminethelowestbucklingload.Todothat: 1. RightclickonthePartname StudytoopentheStudypanel. 2. AssignanewStudyname,selectBucklingastheTypeofanalysis,andusethethinshellastheModel type,clickOK. 3. TousethesameloadsandrestraintsdragtheExternalLoadsfromthefirststudyanddroptheminto thesecondone. 4. Likewise,draganddropthefirstshellMaterialsintothesecondstudy. 5. Createanewfinermesh,ordraganddropthefirstmesh. 6. RightclickonthePartname Run.
12.5.4 Bucklingmode
Abuckling,orstability,analysisisaneigenproblem.Themagnitudeofthescalareigenvalueiscalledthe bucklingloadfactor,BLF.Thecomputeddisplacementeigenvectorisreferredtoasthebucklingmodeor modeshape.Theyareonlyrelativedisplacements.Usuallytheyarepresentedinanondimensionalfashion wherethedisplacementsrangefromzeroto1.Inotherwords,theactualvalueorunitsofabucklingmode shapearenotimportant.Still,itiswisetocarryoutavisualcheckofthefirstbucklingmode: 1. Whenthesolutioncompletes,pickDisplacements Plot1andexaminetheresultantdisplacement URES.NotethatthedisplacementcontourcurvesinFigure126areinclinedtothelongaxisofthe beaminsteadofbeingverticalasbefore. 2. UseEditDefinition Vector Linetogetaplotofthedisplacementvectors,androtatetoanoutof planeview,asshowninFigure127. FromFigure127youseethatundertheverticalloadthe(verythin)beamdeflectedmainlysideways (perpendiculartotheload)ratherthandownward.Thisisanexampleoflateralbuckling.Thatistypicalof whatcanhappentoverythinregions.Next,thequestionis:howlargemusttheendloadbetocausesuch motion,andfailure?
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Figure126Relativebucklingmodedisplacementvalues(normaltosurface)
Figure127Relativelateralbucklingmodedisplacementvectors
12.5.5 BucklingLoadFactor
ToseethemagnitudeoftheBLF(eigenvalue): 1. RightclickonDeformation ListModeShape. 2. IntheModeShapepanel,Figure128,readtheBLFvalueofabout0.03.
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Figure128Firstbucklingmodeloadfactor
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