Instantaneous measurement of two-dimensional temperature distributions

by means of two-color planar laser induced fluorescence (PLIF)

Matthias Bruchhausen, Fabrice Guillard, Fabrice Lemoine
Abstract We present a noninvasive technique to measure
instantaneously two-dimensional temperature distribu-
tions in liquid ows by means of two-color planar laser
induced uorescence (PLIF) of rhodamine B. This tech-
nique allows absolute temperature measurements by
determining the relative intensities on two adequate
spectral bands of the same dye and a reference measure-
ment at a known temperature. Demonstration measure-
ments on a heated turbulent jet injected into a coow at
ambient temperature are presented. The mean tempera-
ture eld is investigated, as well as the temperature uc-
tuations. The results are compared to those obtained by
means of a usual single-color PLIF technique.
List of symbols
A, B Parameters characterizing the sensitivity to
temperature
A
eff
, B
eff
Parameters characterizing the effective sensi-
tivity to temperature in the case of reabsorption
A
u
, B
u
A and B calculated with maximal uncertainties
c Concentration of the dye tracer
cy Optical path
d Diameter of the nozzle of the jet
I
l
Intensity of the laser beam
K
opt
Optical constant
K
spec
Spectral constant
r
f
Fluctuating part of R
f
caused by uctuations of
the temperature only
R
f
Ratio of the uorescence intensity
R
u
Uncertainty of R
f
t Time
T Absolute temperature
T
0
Reference temperature
T
cal
Calibration temperature
T
co
Temperature in the coow
T
inj
Temperature of the heated jet at the injection
T
m
Heated jet centerline temperature
V Measurement volume
x, y Spatial coordinates
z Spatial coordinate along the axis of the jet
Greek symbols
b Sensitivity to temperature
g
T
Heated jet temperature expansion coefcient
k Wavelength
J Fluctuations of the temperature T
J
*
Normalized temperature uctuations
h
*
Normalized temperature
Notations
"
X Time average of X
~
X Fluctuating part of X
1
Introduction
To study ows that are induced by heat sources (e.g.,
natural convection) or ows transporting heat (e.g.,
plumes or jets), it is often necessary to measure the tem-
perature or other scalars nonintrusively. Several methods
based on laser induced uorescence (LIF) of dye tracers
added to the uid have been developed for these purposes.
Techniques using a single dye and a single excitation
wavelength (single-color/single-dye techniques) can be
used to measure either dye concentration or temperature if
the other of these two parameters remains constant. At
constant dye concentration, the local temperature of the
uid can be measured (Nakajima et al. 1990; Sakakibara
et al. 1993; Lemoine et al. 1999) by using the temperature
dependence of the uorescence quantum yield. The selec-
tion of the dye is important for temperature measurement
applications, since the temperature sensitivity varies from
dye to dye. Rhodamine B and kiton Red (also called sulfo-
rhodamine B) are the best temperature sensors (Coppeta
and Rogers 1998). Furthermore, these two dyes can also be
excited by widely available lasers, i.e., the argon ion laser at
k=514.5 nm or the doubled Nd:YAG laser at k=532 nm.
Three constraints regarding the use of single-color/
single-dye techniques, can be pointed out:
Excitation and collection devices have to collect light
from a constant volume during the experiment.
Experiments in Fluids 38 (2005) 123131
DOI 10.1007/s00348-004-0911-2
123
Received: 7 July 2004 / Revised: 29 September 2004
Accepted: 7 November 2004
Published online: 14 December 2004
Springer-Verlag 2004
M. Bruchhausen, F. Lemoine (&)
LEMTACNRS UMR 7563,
2 Avenue de la Foret de Haye,
54504 Vanduvre les Nancy, France
E-mail: fabrice.lemoine@ensem.inpl-nancy.fr
F. Guillard
Dantec Dynamics,
Tonsbakken 16-18, 2740 Skovlunde, Denmark
The incident laser intensity must be maintained constant
during the experiment. If a continuous excitation is used,
it is generally easy to nd very stable lasers. However, if
a pulsed excitation is used, particularly, to implement
planar laser-induced uorescence techniques (PLIF),
the shot to shot pulse energy is likely to vary with an RMS
on the order of 67%, which introduces systematic errors
in the temperature measurements. By monitoring the
laser energy, the RMS can be reduced to below 2%.
In the case of PLIF implementations, the energy distri-
bution in the laser sheet is not uniform. An initial
reference image taken under constant concentration and
temperature conditions must be used for normalization
(Auban et al. 2001).
To partially overcome these problems, alternative
techniques have been developed. Sakakibara and Adrian
(1999) and Hishida and Sakakibara (2000) have developed
techniques based on the simultaneous uorescence of two
different dyes, and Kim et al. (2003) have adopted them for
their use on small spatial scales. Such methods are referred
to as two-color/two-dye techniques. In principle, one of
the dyes should be sensitive to temperature and the other
should not or only very weakly. Also, the emission spectra
of the two dyes should differ enough to permit the sepa-
ration of the emitted light by optical means. The two-dye
technique eliminates Beers absorption as well as the laser
intensity and probe volume dependencies. However, a
dependence on the two dyes concentration ratio remains;
this ratio must be kept constant during the experiments
and the exact value of this ratio must be known. For
example, in turbulent diffusion processes, it must be as-
sumed that the two dyes diffuse similarly, which is the case
for Schmidt numbers Sc<10,000.
The two-color/single-dye technique has been intro-
duced by Lavieille et al. (2001). This technique allows
removing the dependency on the concentration of the
tracer, probe volume dimensions, laser intensity, Beers
absorption on the laser beam path, and the optical layout.
It requires two spectral bands for which the temperature
sensitivity is highly different. The ratio of the uorescence
signal measured on the two spectral bands depends only
on temperature and solves the problem of the dependence
on the concentration, since a single dye (rhodamine B)
associated with two spectral bands and two different
temperature sensitivities is used. This two-color LIF
technique has been successfully applied to determine the
temperature of evaporating and combusting ethanol
droplets by Lavieille et al. (2001, 2002), and extended to
the determination of the temperature distribution within
the droplets by Castanet et al. (2003). In the case of
measurements on very small droplets, the effects of the
optical path are negligible. For larger optical paths, the
reabsorption of the uorescence itself by the medium is
different for the two color bands, since the rst one
coincides roughly with the maximum of the absorption
spectrum. The difference in absorption leads to erroneous
temperature measurements. An extension, called three-
color LIF, has been proposed by Lavieille et al. (2004); a
third spectral band is used to take the uorescence
absorption phenomena into account.
For the measurements of two-dimensional temperature
distributions, similar techniques using PLIF have been
developed.
Coolen et al. (1999) have proposed a method using the
temperature dependence of the uorescence spectrum of
rhodamine B dissolved in water and have applied it to a
natural convection ow. However, this technique requires
special attention to the stability of the laser power and has to
be corrected for variations of the distribution of the laser
intensity caused by shadowgraph effects (thermal lens).
These shadowgraph effects are caused by local variations of
the refractive index that are due to variations of the density
and, hence, variations of the temperature in the ow.
The present paper is devoted to the implementation of
a two-color/single-dye PLIF technique in one-phase ows,
in the case of large optical paths and for a oweld uni-
formly seeded with rhodamine B. The measurement sys-
tem consists of a pulsed Nd:YAG laser and two CCD
cameras for the simultaneous detection of the uorescence
emission on the two spectral bands. Therefore, the laser
intensity and its spatial distribution do not have to be
taken into account explicitly.
The principle of the technique will be described,
taking the effect of reabsorption of the uorescence
emission into account. The calibration measurements are
presented and the inherent uncertainties of the technique
are estimated. As an example, the method is applied to a
heated, turbulent jet and compared to the single-color/
single-dye technique. Finally, the evaluation of the tem-
perature uctuations caused by turbulence is addressed.
2
Description of the technique
In this section, the principle of the two-color LIF technique
for temperature measurements is reviewed.
2.1
Principles
The two-color LIF technique applied to temperature
measurements in liquid ows is based on the measurement
of the uorescence intensity of a dye tracer that is added to
the uid. Especially in liquids, the uorescence emission is
strongly inuenced by quenching, which is a function of
temperature. The dependence on temperature of the u-
orescence intensity I
f
(k) detected at a given wavelength k
can be expressed as (Lemoine et al. 1999):
I
f
k I
l
cVK
opt
kK
spec
k exp
bk
T
_ _
1
where c is the concentration of the dye tracer, V the
measurement volume, I
l
the intensity of the incident laser
beam, K
opt
(k) and K
spec
(k) are constants respectively
characterizing the optical and spectral properties of the
detection system (e.g., the solid angle and spectral sensi-
tivity of the detectors), T the absolute temperature, and
b(k) is the sensitivity to temperature.
To increase the signal intensity during measurements,
the signal intensity is integrated over a spectral band i
limited by the wavelengths k
i,1
and k
i,2
. In that case, Eq. 1
becomes:
124
I
f;i

_
k
i;2
k
i;1
I
l
cVK
opt
kK
spec
k exp
bk
T
_ _
dk 2
According to Lavieille et al. (2004), this expression can be
approximated as:
I
f;i
% I
l
cVK
opt;i
K
spec;i
exp
A
i
T
2

B
i
T
C
i
_ _
3
The constants A
i
and B
i
that dene the shape of this curve
are characteristic for a given combination of dye, solvent,
excitation wavelength, and spectral bands. In contrast, C
i
depends on the exact conguration of the experimental
system (e.g., on the solid angle of the detection system)
and can change from one different measurement cong-
uration to another.
Calculating the ratio R
f
of the intensities for two dif-
ferent spectral bands permits us to eliminate the laser
intensity as well as the concentration of the dye and the
measurement volume:
R
f
T
I
f ;1
I
f ;2

K
opt;1
K
spec;1
K
opt;2
K
spec;2
exp
A
T
2

B
T
C
_ _
4
where X=X
1
)X
2
for X=A, B, and C.
The relation R
f
(T) is xed for a combination of dye
tracer, solvent, excitation wavelength, spectral bands, and
a given detection system (which is characterized by the
constants K
opt,i
and K
spec,i
). The exponential expression in
Eq. 4 determines the sensitivity to temperature of the
measurement system.
To eliminate the inuence of the detection system, a
reference measurement at a known temperature T
0
(with
the same conguration as for the measurement) is re-
corded. Referring to the reference measurement with the
index 0, one obtains:
R
f
R
0
exp A
1
T
2

1
T
2
0
_ _
B
1
T

1
T
0
_ _ _ _
5
or:
ln
R
f
R
0
_ _
A
1
T
2

1
T
2
0
_ _
B
1
T

1
T
0
_ _
6
In many cases, the optical path cy is not negligible
and it is important to take the reabsorption of the uo-
rescence emission in the uid into account; the dye in the
solution will absorb a part of the uorescence emission
according to Lamberts law:
Icy; k I
max
e
ekcy
7
where e(k) is the extinction coefcient, cy the optical
path (see Sect. 3), and I
max
is the intensity without
absorption. To take reabsorption into account, an
additional factor is introduced to Eq. 2:
I
f;i

_
k
i;2
k
i;1
I
l
cVK
opt
kK
spec
ke
bk;cy=T
e
e2cy
dk 8
As the extinction coefcient e(k) depends on the
wavelength, the solution will act as a spectral lter and,
consequently, it will modify the intensity ratio R
f
at the
location of the detector. For a given optical path cy, the
absorption term exp()e(k)cy) is constant and can be for-
mally included into K
spec
. In contrast, the dependence of b
on the optical path has to be taken into account, as shown
by Lavieille et al. (2004).
This dependence can be taken into account by simply
determining different calibration curves for different
optical paths cy. Similarly to Eq. 6, these calibration curves
will lead to effective temperature dependence parameters
A
eff
(cy) and B
eff
(cy).
2.2
Selection of the spectral bands
Figure 1 shows the absorption spectrum of rhodamine B in
an aqueous solution together with its emission spectrum
for excitation at 532 nm and the respective sensitivity to
temperature b(k), measured as suggested by Lavieille et al.
(2001).
The selection of the spectral bands has to be carried out
with regards to the intensity level as well as the sensitivity
to the temperature. The positions of the spectral bands
chosen for the measurements presented here are indicated
in Fig. 1.
3
Measurement system
The experimental setup in the particular case of the
determination of the calibration parameters in a heated
probe vessel is shown in Fig. 2. A light sheet optic is used
to transform the pulses of a Nd:YAG laser (New Wave Solo
PIV) onto a light sheet with a thickness of 2 mm and a
height of 10 cm in the measurement area. The laser is
doubled in frequency (k=532 nm) and a 110 mJ/pulse
output is operated at a repetition frequency of 10 Hz.
The region of interest is observed simultaneously by
two CCD cameras (Dantec Dynamics, HiSense MkII) with
a 12-bit dynamic range. A high-pass lter is used to
520 540 560 580 600 620 640
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
i
e
s
[nm]
band 1
band 2

520 540 560 580 600 620 640

500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000

Fig. 1. Absorption (solid line) and emission (dashed line)

spectrum (excitation at 532 nm) of rhodamine B in an aqueous
solution together with the sensitivity to temperature b (dashed
and dotted line) and the positions of the spectral bands
125
suppress stray light from the laser. By means of the
combination of a dichroic beamsplitter and a mirror, both
cameras are aligned onto the same area. The dichroic
beamsplitter is used for a rst spectral separation of the
two spectral bands in order to maximize the light intensity
detected on both cameras. Interference lters in front of
the camera lenses dene the spectral bands. The interfer-
ence lters have a spectral width of 10 nm (full width half
maximum; FWHM); their spectral positions are depicted
in Fig. 1.
The cameras have CCD chips with a resolution of
1,3441,024 pixels. To increase the light collected by
1 pixel, the cameras are used in 44-binning mode, which
improves the photon detection statistics, but reduces the
spatial resolution in the plane of observation.
Figure 3 shows the dependence of the relative standard
deviation of the camera signal as a function of the signal
intensity. For the measurements presented here, the inten-
sity is kept in the range of 1080%of the dynamical range on
both spectral bands, which corresponds to at least 400 grey
levels. The background dark noise is about 100 grey levels,
with a variation of a few levels over the chip.
4
Calibration and uncertainties
4.1
Calibration experiments
The temperature calibration is carried out by measuring
the uorescence intensities of an isothermal aqueous
solution of rhodamine B at 10
)6
mol/l. These experiments
are realized in a static reference cell. The setup is shown in
Fig. 2. The solution is heated slowly by means of an
immersion heater and is agitated to keep the tempera-
ture spatially constant and to avoid photobleaching. By
moving the laser together with the observation system, the
optical path cy between the measurement plane and the
cameras could be varied (see Fig. 2).
Figure 4 shows a set of calibration curves for three dif-
ferent optical paths cy, together with the respective standard
deviations. The measured ratios ln(R
f
(1/T))) ln(R
f
(1/T
0
))
in the temperature range 2080C are displayed together
with second-order polynomial ts according to Eq. 6. One
can see that ln(R
f
) varies by a factor of 2 within the 60C
range of change in temperature, which corresponds to a
mean variation of R
f
of 0.8%/C.
The standard deviation of the curves in Fig. 4 increases
with temperature. This can be explained by the drop of the
intensity of the uorescence emission and, hence, a
reduction of the photon ux to the detector, which
leadsaccording to the Poisson statisticsto a larger
uncertainty of the measurement. Also, the heating and
agitation of the solution in the reference cell might lead to
small uctuations of the temperature or the refractive in-
dex, which would also lead to larger standard deviations
for higher temperatures.
Fig. 2. Experimental setup for the calibration measurements
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
Average Signal Intensity [a.u.]
R
e
l
.

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

D
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n
measured points
interand extrapolation
Fig. 3. Relative standard deviation of the camera signals as a
function of the signal intensity. The signal intensity is normalized
to the dynamic range of the cameras, i.e., 1=12 bit
2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6
x 10
3
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1/T [1/K]
l
n
(
R
f
(
1
/
T
)
)

l
n
(
R
f
(
1
/
T
0
)
)
1.00e08 m*mol/l
4.00e08 m*mol/l
7.00e08 m*mol/l
Fig. 4. Temperature calibration curves for different optical paths
cy and their respective standard deviations (indicated by the
triangles of the respective colors). Every curve has been calculated
as an average of 70160 camera pixels and 20 images
126
The three curves in Fig. 4 are practically identical. This
means that, for the special combination of the dye, solvent,
and spectral bands used in these experiments, the reab-
sorption of the uorescence emission does not have a
strong inuence on the sensitivity of the uorescence ratio
on the temperature (see Sect. 2.1). This was different in the
experiments of Lavieille et al. (2004) for another combi-
nation and excitation wavelength.
4.2
Estimation of the uncertainties
The uncertainty of the temperatures determined by this
method has two different origins: one part is caused by the
uncertainty of the calibration curve and the other contri-
bution comes from the measurement itself. A numerical
procedure is used to estimate the overall uncertainty of the
temperature measurement.
To calibrate the measurement system, the intensity
ratio R
f
is determined as a function of the calibration
temperature T
cal
(measured by means of a thermocouple)
in an isothermal reference cell. The intensity ratio is
determined as the average of 200,000 measurement points
(20 images with 10,000 pixels per image), which leads to a
statistical error of less than 0.5%. The temperature in the
calibration cell is determined by means of a thermocouple
with an error of 0.25C. The uncertainty of the concen-
tration of the tracer c was considered to be negligible
and the uncertainty of the position y of measurement plan
with respect to the wall of vessel was 1 mm, the uncer-
tainty of the optical path cy being determined by the latter.
Based on these estimates, a different set of variables A
u
and B
u
with maximal errors are calculated according to
Eq. 6.
For temperature measurements, the uncertainty R
u
of
the intensity ratio R
f
has been determined by averaging the
intensity ratios of the same pixel on a series of images.
Based on the coefcients A
u
and B
u
and the intensity ratios
R
f
+R
u
and R
f
)R
u
, a set of temperatures T(A
u
, B
u
, R
f
+R
u
),
T(A
u
, B
u
, R
f
)R
u
), T(A, B, R
f
+R
u
), and T(A, B, R
f
)R
u
) have
been calculated for every pixel. The maximal difference
between all those temperatures and the calculated tem-
perature T(A, B, R
f
) is used as an estimate of the error of
the temperature measurement.
5
Application to a heated jet
The system is demonstrated on temperature measure-
ments on a heated turbulent jet injected into a coow at
ambient temperature. In this section, rst the heated jet
experiment is described. Then, averaged temperature
elds are addressed, as well as instantaneous temperature
measurements. The temperature eld measured by the
two-color technique is compared to similar measurements
using a single spectral band. Finally, the estimation of
temperature uctuations is addressed.
5.1
Experimental conditions
A sketch of the heated jet experiment is shown in Fig. 5.
The liquid of the coow and the heated jet is deionized
water with a concentration of 10
)6
mol/l rhodamine B. As
the solution in both the coow as well as the injected
jet was taken from the same reservoir, the concentration of
the dye is identical. The temperature of the injected liquid
T
inj
is measured by a thermocouple about 20 cm
upstream of the nozzle (diameter d=2 mm). The solution
has a mean velocity on the order of 4 m/s, which means
that 50 ms lay between the temperature measurement and
the injection into the coow. Therefore, T
inj
can be seen as
a rough estimate of the temperature in the jet at the point
of injection. T
inj
is on the order of 50C. The Reynolds
number of the jet at the point of injection is about 16,000.
The coow is at ambient temperature (i.e., T
co
%20.0C)
and its ow velocity on the order of 0.5 m/s. The
expansion coefcient of the temperature proles of the jet
has been determined in earlier measurements: g
T
=0.072.
5.2
Mean temperature field
Figure 6 shows the temperature distribution of the heated
jet measured by two-color LIF. The temperature eld has
been averaged over 100 images, the laser beam entering
the jet from the lower side of the image. The spatial
resolution in the xz plane (determined by the resolution
of the CCD camera) is 0.270.27 mm
2
.
Figure 7 shows the variance of the temperature
measurement in Fig. 6. The variance was calculated
independently for every pixel by the procedure described
in Sect. 4.2. It contains contributions from uncertainties
inherent to the LIF measurement, as well as uctuations of
the temperature itself that are caused by the turbulent
nature of the ow eld. A separation of the two aspects is
addressed in Sect. 5.5. It is visible that the variance of the
temperature in the jet is much higher than outside of the
jet. It can also be seen that the prole of the variance in a
plane perpendicular to the axis of the jet is a hollow
prole: the maxima of the variance being located at the
regions where the temperature gradient is the steepest.
This phenomenon has already been shown by Chua and
Antonia (1990) and Lemoine et al. (1999). It can be
Fig. 5. Sketch of the heated jet experiment
127
explained by the proportionality of the turbulent heat ux
to the temperature gradient.
The variance of the temperature does not seem to be
symmetric on proles perpendicular to the axis of the jet.
The variance in the upper part of Fig. 7 is much larger
than on the corresponding lower part. This asymmetry is
caused by the deviation of the laser light rays by the heated
jet. As the laser pulses propagate vertically from the
bottom to the top of the image, they have to cross the
heated jet. The uctuations of the temperature within the
jet lead to uctuations of the refractive index, which, in
turn, lead to uctuations of the distribution of the laser
intensity in the probe volume (especially behind the jet).
These uctuations are small and, therefore, a slight spatial
mismatch (on the order of one pixel) between the images
of the two cameras will result in uctuations of the
intensity ratio and, hence, lead to variations of the mea-
sured instantaneous temperature that do not correspond
to temperature uctuations. An estimate of the tempera-
ture uctuations is given in Sect. 5.5.
To compare jets of different nozzle diameters and
injection temperatures, it is useful to use normalized val-
ues for the temperatures and distances. The normalized
temperature h
*
is dened as h
*
=(T)T
co
)/(T
m
)T
co
) where T
is the local temperature, T
co
is the temperature of the
coow, and T
m
is the maximum temperature for a given
prole. The radial distance x is normalized by z.
Figure 8 shows proles of the normalized temperature
h
*
perpendicular to the axis of injection. It is clearly visible
that the proles close to the nozzle vary strongly, but
match quite well inside the region of autosimilarity, which
typically begins at a distance of 10d (see Chevray and Tutu
1977).
5.3
Comparison to a single-band system
Compared to a technique using a single spectral band, the
two-color technique using the dye rhodamine B has a
smaller sensitivity on temperature: for a single-band sys-
tem, the maximum of the function b(k) shown in Fig. 1
can be used, which leads to a maximal sensitivity on the
temperature. In contrast, on a two-band system, the factor
b for both spectral bands has to be considered. Coolen
et al. (1999) have shown that the uorescence emission of
rhodamine B decreases with rising temperature over the
entire spectrum. That means the variation of the intensity
ratio of two bands is always smaller than the variation of
the properly selected single band.
On the other hand, the two-color technique has the
advantage of being independent from the local laser
intensity, the dimensions of the probe volume, andas
long as reabsorption phenomena can be neglectedfrom
the concentration of the dye (see Sect. 2.1).
The one-color technique requires the determination of
the distribution of the laser intensity by a reference mea-
surement prior to the actual temperature measurement,
which makes it sensitive to shadowgraph effects, as ex-
plained by Coolen et al. (1999). The two-color technique,
in contrast, is independent of the local distribution of the
laser intensity. This is an advantage that is especially
z [mm]
x

[
m
m
]
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
10
5
0
5
10
20
25
30
35
40
45
Fig. 6. Temperature distribution of the heated jet in C. The origin
of the coordinate system is at the exit of the nozzle. The
temperature is calculated as the average of 100 images. One pixel
corresponds to 0.270.27 mm
2
z [mm]
x

[
m
m
]
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
10
5
0
5
10
2
3
4
5
6
7
Fig. 7. Variance of the temperature distribution shown in Fig. 6
in C
2
0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
x/z

*
z/d=24
z/d=17
z/d=10
z/d=3
Fig. 8. Normalized temperature proles perpendicular to the axis
of the jet at different distances z/d from the nozzle (d=2 mm)
128
important if the distribution of the laser intensity is
modied by the investigated object itself.
To demonstrate this, the data of the measurement
shown in Fig. 6 are determined using the data from
spectral band 2 only. The results are displayed in Fig. 9.
The temperature proles perpendicular to the jet are not
symmetric, as should be expected. The two proles of
these temperature elds, at a distance of z=10 mm from
the nozzle, that are displayed in Fig. 10 show the difference
between both methods even more clearly.
This asymmetry is caused by the modication of the
distribution of the laser intensity by the jet itself: the laser
beam propagates from the bottom of the image to the top.
The variation of the temperature in the jet leads to a
variation of the refractive index which, consequently, leads
to a variation of the distribution of the laser intensity.
Therefore, the asymmetry of the temperature prole is
strongest in the close vicinity of the nozzle, where the
largest variation of the temperature can be found. A
comparison with Fig. 6 shows that this problem is cor-
rected well by means of the two-color technique.
5.4
Instantaneous temperature field
Figure 11 shows an example of an instantaneous temper-
ature eld measurement. The exposure time, dened by
the length of the laser pulse (%7 ns) and the lifetime of the
excited state of the dye (%2 ns, as reported by Lopez
Arbeloa et al. (1989)), is on the order of 10 ns.
Comparing this image to the average temperature eld
in Fig. 6, the turbulent structure of the instantaneous
temperature eld can be clearly recognized. In the next
section, these uctuations will be investigated more thor-
oughly.
5.5
Temperature fluctuations
The ratio of the uorescence intensities as a function of
time R
f
(t) can be decomposed into a constant part
"
R
f
and a
uctuation part
~
R
f
t: The latter, time-dependent part,
contains contributions r
f
(t) that are solely due to
temperature uctuations and statistical white noise b(t)
from the photon statistics, electronic noise from the
ampliers, and the like. Hence, R
f
(t) can be expressed as:
R
f
t
"
R
f

~
R
f
t
"
R
f
r
f
t bt 9
Denoting with J the temperature uctuations around the
mean temperature
"
T and using Eq. 5, one can adopt the
approach made by Lemoine et al. (1999) for a single-band
system, and obtain in a linear approach for sufciently
small uctuation amplitudes:
r
f
#

@R
f
@T

"
R
f
2
A
"
T
3

B
"
T
2
_ _
10
and, hence, the variance:
#
2
k
2
r
2
f
; with k
"
R
f
2
A
"
T
3

B
"
T
2
_ _ _ _
1
11
z [mm]
x

[
m
m
]
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
10
5
0
5
10
20
25
30
35
40
Fig. 9. Temperature eld of the heated jet measured by means of a
single spectral band. The temperature is calculated using the data
of spectral band 2 from the measurement shown in Fig. 6
10 5 0 5 10
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
x [mm]
T

[

C
]

Fig. 10. Temperature proles at a distance of z=10 mm from the
nozzle along the x axis for the temperature elds in Figs. 6 (solid
line) and 9 (broken line) respectively determined by means of the
two-color and single-color techniques
z [mm]
x

[
m
m
]
10 15 20 25 30
0
2
4
6
8
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Fig. 11. Instantaneous temperature distribution of the heated jet
calculated from a single pair of images. The origin of the
coordinate system is at the exit of the nozzle
129
Using Eq. 9, the variance of J becomes:
#
2
k
2
~
R
f
t bt
_ _
2
12
k
2
~
R
2
f
t 2
~
R
f
tbt bt
2
_ _
13
Taking into account that r
f
(t) and b(t) are uncorrelated
and, therefore, r
f
tbt 0; one nally gets:
#
2
k
2
~
R
2
f
b
2
_ _
14
The term b
2
represents the variance of the intensity ratio
for measurements of a constant temperature eld without
any temperature uctuations. It is strongly inuenced by
the intensity of the uorescence emission detected by the
cameras (see Fig. 3).
To estimate the value of b
2
that takes into account the
inuence of both cameras, rst, the corresponding values
b
2
1
and b
2
2
are determined for every pixel of both of the
cameras seperately as a function of the local mean inten-
sity by means of the curve shown in Fig. 3. As b
2
1
and b
2
2
are not correlated, the resulting noise for both cameras can
be calculated by:
b
2
b
2
1
b
2
2
15
Figure 12 shows the prole of the temperature uctu-
ations of the jet based on 1,000 images. For comparison
with other studies on heated jet experiments, the tem-
perature uctuations are expressed in normalized coor-
dinates. The abcissa is given by the ratio x/z, as in Sect. 5.2.
The temperature uctuations themselves are normalized
as #

#
2
_ _

"
T
m

"
T
1
:
In contrast to what is to be expected, the temperature
uctuations outside the jet are not zero at both sides of the
image. This is caused by uctuations of the local laser
intensity that are not completely compensated for during
the calculation of the instantaneous intensity ratio because
of a residual mismatch of the superposition of the images
of both cameras (see Sect. 5.2).
To correct these effects, a background curve is
determined as shown on Fig. 12 and subtracted from the
uctuations. The result of this process is displayed in
Fig. 13, where the corrected normalized proles of the
temperature uctuations are plotted together with a curve
from Lemoine et al. (1999), which was measured on the
same jet and another one from Chua and Antonia (1990).
With the exception of the prole next to the nozzle,
which is wider than the other proles, the proles seem to
adopt a self-similar behavior as observed by Chevray and
Tutu (1977). However, the amplitude of the uctuations
measured presently is lower than the ones reported by
Chua and Antonia (1990) and Lemoine et al. (1999). There
are several possible reasons for this. The measurement
volume in the experiments described here is larger than it
was in the experiments of Chua and Antonia (1990) and
Lemoine et al. (1999), which leads to a spatial smoothing
of the uctuation and, hence, to an underestimation of
their amplitude. Another reason could be that the proles
are not taken at the same position z/d from the nozzle for
all measurements. The prole in Lemoine et al. (1999) was
taken at z/d=24, which is outside the measurement area of
the setup described in this article, and Chua and Antonia
(1990) have shown that the amplitude of the normalized
uctuations increases with increasing z/d.
Also, the correction of the uctuation prole with re-
spect to the mismatch of the camera images is rather
imprecise, and will probably lead to a certain misestima-
tion of the uctuation amplitude.
Figure 14 shows the eld of the corrected temperature
uctuations for the heated jet experiment. Even if the
determination of the absolute amplitude of the tempera-
ture uctuations is not very precise, the two-colors PLIF
technique can be used for the investigation of their
structure and spatial distribution.
6
Conclusions
A new method using planar laser induced uorescence
(PLIF) for noninvasive 2D temperature measurements in
0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
x/z

*
Measured Profiles
Correction Function
Fig. 12. Measured prole of the temperature uctuations at z/d=3
perpendicular to the axis of the jet together with the background
curve that compensates the inuence of the shadowing effect
behind the jet
0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
x/z

*
z/d=16
z/d=12
z/d=7
z/d=3
Chua and Antonia (1990)
Lemoine et al. (1999)
Fig. 13. Normalized proles of the corrected temperature uctu-
ations at different positions z/d along the axis of the jet and in
comparison to proles from the literature
130
uids is presented. The technique is based on the tem-
perature dependence of the intensity ratio detected on two
spectral bands of the same dye.
It is shown that this technique removes the dependence
on the concentration of the dye tracer as well as the need
for an exact knowledge of the intensity distribution of the
excitation laser eld. The latter is especially important as
the laser power is modulated by shot-by-shot noise and,
additionally, the spatial distribution of the laser intensity
can be modied by refraction due to variations of the
refractive index of the uid that are caused by temperature
gradients. The comparison of the temperature elds
determined by means of a single-color and two-color
technique shows this clearly.
The tests on a heated jet experiment demonstrate that
the technique can be used to obtain information about
the mean as well as instantaneous temperature distribu-
tions. The amplitude of the uctuations are strongly
subject to inaccuracies caused by limitations of the
spatial resolution which leads to smoothing of the
uctuations and by a slight misalignment of the two
cameras.
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131