Basics of Fiber Optics: Transmitting Light Signals Through Hair-Thin Strands of Glass or Plastic Fiber

Learning Objectives
Basics of Fiber Optics
Learn about fiber-optics Identify the advantages and disadvantages of fiber-optics Learn how fiber-optics are constructed Learn about fiber-optic connectors Understand the basics of fiber-optic transmission
Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000
Fiber Optics
Fiber Optics
Fiber-optic cable is a communications medium that uses modulated light for transmissions through thin strands of glass Signals that represent data bits are converted into beams of light Although the cost of the fiber media is not significantly more than copper cable, the connectors, tools, and labor needed to terminate the fiber are considerably more expensive
Transmitting light signals through hair-thin strands of glass or plastic fiber
How Fiber-Optics Work

Incoming light is reflected or refracted off of the cladding depending on what angle it strikes the cladding It then bounces inside the core and cladding for very great distances
Fiber-Optic Cables
Each fiber-optic circuit is actually two fiber cables One fiber is used for transmission in each direction Notice that each cable has both a transmit and a receive connector A pair (Tx/Rx) could plug into a router, switch, termination panel, server, or even workstation
Data Transmission
A transmitter converts data into coded light pulses and injects the light pulses into the fiber A device known as a Light Emitting Diode (LED), a LASER, or a VCSEL (Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser), produces the light A sequence of pulses represents the data that is being sent When the light pulse reaches the destination it is channeled into the optical receiver
Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000 Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000
Fiber Optic Link
Optical Receiver
At the opposite end of the fiber-optic system, is the receiver or decoder The role of the receiver is to detect the light pulse arriving at the other end and to convert it back to the original electrical signal containing the information that was impressed on the light at the transmitting end. A device known as a transceiver, which performs both the transmission and reception functions of a transmitter and receiver, can also be used
Multiplexing
Multiplexing (MUX) is a process in which multiple data channels are combined into a single data or physical channel at the source Demultiplexing (DEMUX) is the process of separating multiplexed data channels at the destination
Data
Early Experiments
Light
Fiber Optics
Water Stream
Background
Guided Light
Fiber-Optic Transmission Types

Single-mode uses a single mode of light to transmit the signal and multimode uses multiple modes of light to transmit the signal, thus the term multimode A mode in optical transmission is a ray of light entering the core at a particular angle Modes can therefore be thought of as bundles of light rays of the same wavelength entering the fiber at a specific angle
Fiber Optic Cabling

Single mode Multimode
Single Mode
Single-mode Fiber
The core of a single mode fiber is very small usually about 9 microns (a micron is one-millionth of a meter) In singlemode fiber the light takes one path or mode to travel through the fiber Because of the small core, very precise light sources are needed (LASERs) to inject the light into the fiber Singlemode fiber is commonly used in telephony(telephone communications) and cable TV
Cladding Core
Index Profile
Laser Light Source

Input Pulse
Axial light
Output Pulse
Single-mode Fiber
Multi-mode Fiber
Distances up to 3000 meters in Campus / Building backbone LASER light source Very small core Less dispersion Higher Bandwidth
Multimode fiber has a larger core (the standard is 62.5 microns) In multimode fiber there are several paths or modes that the light takes as it travels through the fiber Because of the large core it is easier to send the light into the fiber. As a result, cheaper components (LEDs) are used for the light source Multimode fiber is extensively used in Networking, especially in LANs
Multi-mode
Multi-mode Fiber
Cladding Core Non-axial light (higher order modes)
Light Source
Index Profile
Distances up to 2000 meters LED light source Larger core than Singlemode Allows more dispersion Lower Bandwidth
Input Pulse
Output Pulse
Physical Characteristics
Fiber Optics
Multimode
62.5/125 Connectors and Splices
Single mode
9/125
Connectors
Connectors are used to join two optical fibers or a fiber to equipment. Connectors are expected to be disconnected and reconnected occasionally Connectors are made of metal or plastic
Splices
Splices are permanent connections between two fibers Mechanical splicing is accomplished by laying two ends of fiber in a fixture and then hot glueing them together. There is more loss in mechanical splices Fusion splicing is made by welding the two ends of the fibers together with an electrical arc. This creates a better splice
Connectors
Splice
Refraction and Reflection

When light travels from one material to another two things can occur: The light is bent, or refracted, when passing from one material to another OR The light bounces off the other material and is reflected
The Physics of Fiber Optics

Reflection, Refraction and Wavelength
Reflection
When light travels through a medium like air and strikes another medium like glass, the light either reflects off the surface (reflection) or passes into or through the second medium
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of a beam of light through an interface between two dissimilar media, such as the glass and air
Refraction
Reflection and Refraction

In refraction, the light is bent as it passes through the boundary between the two materials
refraction
Refraction is the bending of light. It happens when light encounters certain substances such as air, water, and glass
reflection
The straw isnt bent; the light we receive has been bent
In reflection, all the light bounces off the boundary at the same angle that it struck the boundary
Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber Optic Cable is also referred to as an optical waveguide
Fiber Structure
Made of a core, cladding and buffer coating The core and cladding are made of glass or plastic The buffer coating is a plastic coating used to protect the cable from moisture and damage
Lightwave Waveguide (Glass Fiber)
Core, Cladding, and Coating
Index of Refraction
The density of the glass is measured as an index of refraction (n) The index of refraction compares the speed of light through any material to the speed of light through air (vacuum) n = c/v = (speed in vacuum/ speed in glass) Light always will travel more slowly through any material other than a vacuum, so values of n for glass are always > 1, usually ~ 1.5
Cladding n2 Core n1 Cladding n2 n1 > n2 (less dense)
Coating/ Buffer
Core
Cladding
Light Transmission Through an Optical Fiber
Critical Angle
The angle at which the ray hits the glass surface is called the angle of incidence. When this angle of incidence reaches a certain point, called the critical angle, all the light is reflected back into the original medium
The light is "guided" down the core by reflecting off the cladding. While the core and cladding are both glass, they have different densities The densities of the core and cladding are designed so that the light striking the cladding will be reflected back into the core and will continue to travel through the fiber core This process is called total internal reflection and is how a fiber optic cable can transmit light.
Key Points
When light encounters a medium with a different density, the light is refracted or reflected The reflection or refraction depends on these factors: The density of the two media The angle at which the light strikes the interface (boundary) between the two media
Wavelength
Wavelength is the color of the light traveling in the fiber Industrial and commercial fiber systems use light in the infrared region, which is not visible to the human eye Wavelength is measured in nanometers: (nm) one-billionth of a meter
Light waves and wavelengths

Wavelengths of light are measured in nanometers (nm) or microns (m) The wavelength is the distance between the waves
Electromagnetic Energy
1022 1021 1020 1019 1018 Cosmic Rays Gamma Rays X-Rays
Ultra Violet Violet
Wavelength
400 455 490
Frequency
1017 1016 1015 1014 1013 1012 1011 10

10
Ultraviolet
Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
Visible Light
Infrared
550 580 620
1 THz
Radar
750
1 GHz
109 108 107 TV & FM Radio Short Wave Radio AM Radio

850
Infrared
800
1 MHz
106
Light Signal (Wavelength)
Attenuation and Dispersion
1 Second
Wavelength Peak to Peak Amplitude One Cycle
Attenuation is the reduction in signal strength as the light wave travels through the FO cable Dispersion is a spreading and flattening of the light wave as it travels through the FO cable.
Frequency = 4 Cycles per Second (4 Hz)
Fiber-Optic Advantages
Electromagnetic immunity including nonconductivity Nearly impossible to tap providing for greater security than copper cable Decreased attenuation and increased transmission distance Increased bandwidth potential Small diameter and weight Cost effective in a long-term installation
Fiber Optics
Features, Advantages, Disadvantages and Cable Types
Fiber-Optic Enclosures
Fiber-optic enclosure systems, consisting of connectors and protective channels, are designed to protect fiber-optic cable
Fiber-Optic Transmission Properties

Fiber is not subject to EMI, RFI, or voltage surges Cannot produce or transmit electric sparks The non-conductive nature of fiber-optics makes it a great choice for areas of high lightning-strike incidence
Wall mount enclosure
Fiber-Optic Raceway
Fiber-Optic Security Considerations
Fiber-Optic Attenuation and Transmission Distance

To keep a signal going, it must be boosted every so often along the line A signal regenerator (repeater) is used to boost the electronic pulse in a copper cable An optical repeater is used to boost the light pulse in a fiber-optic cable The advantage of optical fiber is that it performs better with respect to attenuation. (optical repeaters do not cause as much attenuation)
The use of light in optical fiber makes it difficult to remotely detect the signal being transmitted within the cable The only way to tap a fiber circuit is to actually access the optical fiber itself, which requires intervention that is easily detectable by security surveillance
Increased Bandwidth of Fiber-Optics
Fiber-Optic Size and Weight

Compared to copper, optical fiber is relatively small in diameter and much lighter in weight
Fiber circuits used in trunk connections between cities and countries carry information at up to 2.5 gigabits per second (Gbps) This is enough to carry 40,000 telephone circuits or 250 television channels Industry experts predict larger bandwidths than this as technology advances
This multi-pair copper cable could easily be replaced with a single pair of optical fibers
Fiber-Optic Size and Weight Comparisons A 1 cm, 24-strand fiber cable operating at 140 Mbps carries the same number of voice channels as a 7.5 cm 900-pair copper cable One kilometer (.6 miles) of this 24-strand fiber cable weighs approximately 132 lbs. The same length of 900-pair copper cable weighs approximately 16,00 lbs One single strand of single-mode fiber can now carry up to five million phone calls simultaneously
Optical Fiber Cost Benefits
The initial cost of changing over to fiber can be quite expensive Long-term cost effectiveness is due to the relative ease of upgrading fiber-optics to higher speeds and performance since many electronic devices can be upgraded without modifying the fiber circuits
Fiber-Optic Disadvantages
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Communication

Bend Strength
Higher initial cost than copper Fiber connectors are more delicate than copper connectors It takes a higher level of training and skill to terminate fiber The installation tools and meters are more expensive
Lower Bend Strengths. Cables are generally designed to avoid this situation
Hydrogen Absorption
H2 molecules can be absorbed and diffused in silica fibers and produce attenuation
Line Transmission
Optical Fiber Communication is not a wireless system and there is always an optical fiber cable between transmitters and receivers
Manufacturing of Fiber Glass
Students often ask how fiber is made. It's certainly not obvious how something only 1/8 of a mm - 0.005 inches - in diameter can be made with such precision. Some basic facts about how optical fiber is manufactured may help to provide a better understanding of how optical fiber works too.
Students often ask how fiber is made. It's certainly not obvious how something only 1/8 of a mm - 0.005 inches - in diameter can be made with such precision. Some basic facts about how optical fiber is manufactured may help to provide a better understanding of how optical fiber works too.
Manufacturing of Fiber Glass Manufacturing of Fiber Glass

At the Core There are two main types of optical fiber: 1. Single-mode 2. Multimode. Both types of fiber are composed of only two basic concentric glass structures: The core: which carries the light signals, Cladding: which traps the light in the core Propagation of Light in Fiber Glass

There are two main steps in the process of converting raw materials into optical fiber 1. Manufacturing of the pure glass preform 2. Configuring Optical Fiber

1. Manufacturing the Preform The first step in manufacturing glass optical fibers is to make a solid glass rod, known as a preform. Ultra-pure chemicals -- primarily silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4) and germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4) -- are converted into glass during preform manufacturing. These chemicals are used in varying proportions to fabricate the core regions for the different types of preforms.

The basic chemical reaction of manufacturing optical glass is: SiCl4 (gas) + O2 GeCl4 (gas) + O2 SiO2 (solid) + 2Cl2 (in the presence of heat) GeO2 (solid) + 2Cl2 (in the presence of heat)

The core composition of all standard communication fibers consists primarily of silica, with varying amounts of germania added to increase the fiber's refractive index to the desired level. Single-mode fibers typically have only small amounts of germania and have a uniform composition within the core. Multimode fibers typically have a much higher refractive index, and therefore much higher germania content.
Configuring Optical Fiber

2. Configuring Optical Fiber The next step in the process of producing optical fibers is to convert the manufactured preform into a hair-thin fiber. This is done in an operation called fiber draw or fiber configuration The tip of the preform is lowered into a high-purity graphite furnace. Pure gasses are injected into the furnace to provide a clean and conductive atmosphere. In the furnace, tightly controlled temperatures approaching 1900C soften the tip of the preform. Once the softening point of the preform tip is reached, gravity takes over and allows a molten gob to "free fall" until it Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000 has been stretched into a thin strand.

The operator threads this strand of fiber through a series of coating dies, and the drawing process begins. The fiber is pulled by a tractor belt situated at the bottom of the draw tower and then wound on winding drums. During the draw, the preform is heated at the optimum temperature to achieve an ideal drawing tension. Draw speeds of 10 - 20 meters per second are not uncommon in the industry.

During the draw process the diameter of the drawn fiber is controlled to 125 microns within a tolerance of only 1 micron. A laser-based diameter gauge is used to monitor the diameter of the fiber. The gauge can sample the diameter of the fiber at rates in excess of 750 times per second. The actual value of the diameter is compared to the 125 micron target. Slight deviations from the target are converted to changes in draw speeds and fed to the tractor mechanism for correction.

If the diameter of the fiber increases above its target, the drawing speed is increased; if the fiber diameter starts falling below the target, the draw speed is decreased.

A two layer protective coating is then applied to the fiber -a soft inner coating and a hard outer coating. This two-part protective jacket provides mechanical protection for handling while also protecting the surface of the fiber from harsh environments. These coatings are cured by ultraviolet lamps. The drawing process is well automated and requires virtually no operator interaction after the threading step.
Attenuation of Light in Fiber Glass

Absorption
Absorption occurs when the light beam is partially absorbed by materials, namely water and metal ions, within the core of the fiber as well as in the cladding. Though absorption in standard glass fibers tends to increase between the critical lengths of 700 and 1550 nanometers (nm) Almost any type of fiber at any length will have light absorbed by some of the traces of impurities that inevitably appear in all fibers. As the light signal travels through the fiber, each impurity absorbs some of the light, weakening the signal; therefore, longer fibers are more prone to attenuation due to absorption than shorter ones.

Scattering
Scattering, another significant aspect of attenuation, occurs when atoms or other particles within the fiber spread the light. This process differs with absorption in that, for the most part, foreign particles on the fiber are not absorbing the light, but the light signal bounces off the particle rather than the fibers wall and spreads the signal in another direction. For glass fibers, the foremost type of scattering is Rayleigh scattering, which somewhat contrasts with the accepted definition of scattering. With this process, atoms or other particles within the fiber fleetingly absorb the light signal and instantly re-emit the light in another direction.

Scattering In this way, Rayleigh scattering appears very much like absorption, but it absorbs and re-directs the light so quickly that it is considered scattering Both scattering and absorption are cumulative, in that they keep building up. Light is absorbed and scattered continuously, so the signal at the end of the fiber is almost never exactly the same signal as it was at the beginning. However, for the most part, the signal loss is minimal and does not greatly hinder the communication.

There are three Types of Dispersion Material Dispersion Material dispersion, also known as chromatic dispersion. This type of intramodal dispersion results from the fact that the refractive index of the fiber medium varies as a function of wavelength. Since neither the light source nor the fiber optic cable is 100 percent pure, the pulse being transmitted becomes less and less precise as the lights wavelengths are separated over long distances. The exact same effect occurs when a glass prism disperses light into a spectrum.

Wave-guide Dispersion Wave-guide dispersion, another type, is very similar to material dispersion in that they both cause signals of different wavelengths and frequencies to separate from the light pulse. However, wave-guide dispersion depends on the shape, design, and chemical composition of the fiber core. Only 80 percent of the power from a light source is confined to the core in a standard single-mode fiber, while the other 20 percent actually propagates through the inner layer of the cladding. This 20 percent travels at a faster velocity because the refractive index of the cladding is lower than that of the core.

Modal Dispersion The third and final significant type of dispersion is related to the fact that a pulse of light transmitted through a fiber optic cable is composed of several modes, or rays, of light instead of only one single beam. Therefore, it is called modal dispersion Since the rays of the light pulse are not perfectly focused together into one beam, each mode of light travels a different path, some short and some long. As a result, the modes will not be received at the same time, and the signal will be distorted or even lost over long distances.

Basics of Fiber Optics: Transmitting Light Signals Through Hair-Thin Strands of Glass or Plastic Fiber

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Learning Objectives

Basics of Fiber Optics

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Transmitting light signals through hair-thin strands of glass or plastic fiber

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

How Fiber-Optics Work

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Fiber Optic Link

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Fiber-Optic Transmission Types

Fiber Optic Cabling

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Laser Light Source

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cladding Core Non-axial light (higher order modes)

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

62.5/125 Connectors and Splices

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Refraction and Reflection

The Physics of Fiber Optics

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Reflection and Refraction

Fiber Optic Cable

Lightwave Waveguide (Glass Fiber)

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Core, Cladding, and Coating

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Light Transmission Through an Optical Fiber

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Light waves and wavelengths

Ultra Violet Violet

1017 1016 1015 1014 1013 1012 1011 10

Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

550 580 620

109 108 107 TV & FM Radio Short Wave Radio AM Radio

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Light Signal (Wavelength)

Attenuation and Dispersion

Frequency = 4 Cycles per Second (4 Hz)

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000

Fiber-Optic Transmission Properties

Wall mount enclosure

Cisco Systems, Inc. 2000