-:CARBOHYDRATES

-Functions energetical function source of energy for the cellular reactions protective and mechanical functions coenzymatic function hydroosmotic Some monosaccharides form part of nucleotides A lot of representatives of carbohydrates participate in-anticoagulation of blood, in the immune processes, in cell growth, biological recognition .processes -: Carbohydrates are compounds which contains no less then 2 hydroxil and one carbonil Aldehyd or ketone -:Classificatiion:- Monosaccharids -In depending of functional group of molecule: A Aldoze glyceraldehyde, ribose, glucose, galactose Ketoze dioxyacetone, ribulose, xilulose, fructose
O C H

CH2OH C=O (CHOH)n CH2OH

(CHOH)n CH2OH

Aldoses ketoses :B-In depending of the number of carbon atoms in molecule

trioze glyceraldehyde, dioxyacetone tetroze ,pentoze ribobe, ribuloze, xiluloze ,hexoze - glucoze, galactoze, manoze, fructoze .heptoze sedoheptuloze

-:Oligosacharides
: are formed from 2 till 10 monosaccharides ;disaccharides: sucrose, lactoze, maltoze ;trisaccharides tetrasaccharides pentasaccharides

-:Polisaccharides homopolysaccharides are formed from the same monomeres: glycogen, starch, celuloze

Heteropolysaccharides from different monomeres . glucoz-aminoglicanes -:Stereoisomeria of monosaccharides . Monosaccharides contain one or more chiralic carbon atoms
O C H H OH HO O C H

C*

C* H CH2OH

CH2OH D(+ )-Glyceraldehyde

L(-)-Glyceraldehyde

-:Stereoisomeria of glucose:O C H H H O H H C C C C O H H O H O H HO H HO H O C C C C O C H H O H H H

Pentoses
O C H H H H C C C OH OH OH H HO H C C C O C H OH H OH HO H H C C C O C H H OH OH H H H C C C O C H H OH OH

CH2OH D-Ribose

CH2OH D-Xylose

CH2OH D-Arabinose

CH2OH D-Dezoxiribose

CH 2O H Dg - luco se

CH 2O H L- lucose g

-:Hexoses
O C H H HO H H C C C C OH H OH OH HO HO H H C C C C O C H H H OH OH H HO HO H C C C C O C H OH H H OH HO H H CH 2OH C C C C O H OH OH

CH 2OH D-Glucose

CH 2OH D-M annose

CH 2OH D- Galactose

CH 2OH D-Fructose

Pyranose cycle - a-D-Glucopyranose

b-D- Glucopyranose

CH2 OH

-: anose cycle

HOH2C H H OH

O HO

CH2OH HO OH H H H

C C C C

O H OH OH

HOH2C H H OH

O HO

OH

Fur
CH2OH H

CH2OH D-Fructose

-D-fructofuranose

-D-fructofuranose

Oligosaccharides:- Maltose Lactose Sucrose -Maltose

Lactose:- known as a milk sugar consists of -D-galactose and -D-glucose, joined

.through a -(1-4)-glycoside linkage
CH2OH HO H O H OH H H OH O H H CH2OH O H OH H H OH H OH

Non-reducing disaccharides Sucrose:- Sucrose is a disaccharide that contains .D-fructose and -D-glucose, joined by a glycoside bond between carbons

-:Polysaccharides .Starch is the reserve carbohydrate that are stored by plants in roots, tubers and seeds Glycogen is the reserve carbohydrate of animals, and a relatively small amount is .stored in the liver and muscles

Starch can be:- is amylose (20%), that is water-soluble. amylopectin (80%), is . water-insoluble -:Amylose
CH2OH H O H OH H H OH H O CH2OH O H OH H H OH H O H CH2OH O H OH H H OH H O CH2OH O H OH H H OH H O

-:Amylopectin
C H 2OH H O H OH H C H 2OH H O H OH H H OH H O H OH C H 2O H O H OH H H OH H O H H O H C H 2OH O H OH H H OH C H 2O H O H OH H H OH H O H O C H 2O H O H OH H H OH O CH2 O H OH H H OH H O H

Glycogen:- Glycogen is also a polymer of glucose residues linked mainly by a(1,4) .glycosidic linkages .Molecule of glycogen is considerable bigger then the molecule of amylopectin

-:Cellulose Cellulose is the structural material of plants and is the most abundant organic .substance found in nature. by -(1,4)glycosidic linkages
CH2OH H O H OH H H OH O H H CH2OH O H OH H H OH O H H CH2OH O H OH H H OH O H H CH2OH O H OH H H OH O H

-:Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates The digestion of starch begins with salivary amylase, but this activity is much less .important than that of pancreatic amylase in the small intestine Amylase hydrolyzes starch, with the primary end products being maltose, .maltotriose amylase digestion are hydrolyzed into their component monosaccharides by .enzymes maltase, sucrase, isomaltase and lactase .maltase cleaves maltose into two molecules of glucose .lactase cleaves lactose into a glucose and a galactose .sucrase cleaves sucrose into a glucose and a fructose .Monosaccharide absorption occurs primarily in the upper small intestine Only D-glucose and D-galactose are actively absorbed in the human small .intestine. The sodium dependent glucose transporter, SGLT1 Glucose is pumped out of the enterocyte into the intracellular space by the glucose .(transporter 2 (GLUT2 D-fructose is not actively absorbed, but is taken up by facilitated transport by the .(glucose transporter 5 (GLUT5 Glycogen Synthesis: Synthesis of glycogen from glucose is carried out the enzyme glycogen synthase. This enzyme utilizes UDP-glucose as one substrate and the non.reducing end of glycogen as another

Branching enzyme:- A branching enzyme transfers a segment from the end of a glycogen chain to the C6 hydroxyl of a glucose residue of glycogen to yield a .branch with an a(1,6) linkage

-:(Glycogen catabolism (glycogenolysis Degradation of glycogen, termed glycogenolysis, occurs through the action of .enzyme glycogen phosphorylase .The product of this reaction is glucose-1-phosphate .(Glycogen Phosphorylase catalyzes phosphorolytic cleavage of the a(1,4 .glucose-1-phosphate as the reaction product

Phosphoglucomutase:- The glucose-1-phosphate produced by the action of .phosphorylase is converted to glucose-6-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase

-:Phosphoglucomutase catalyzes the reversible reaction The liver enzyme Glucose-6-phosphatase catalyzes the following reaction, essential to the liver's role in maintaining blood glucose: Glucose-6-phosphate + .H2O glucose + Pi