Chapter 1 An Overview of Pneumatic Conveying Systems and Performance Abstract This chapter sets the scene for understanding

and design of pneumatic conveying systems. Pneumatic conveying is broken down into its component parts indicating the further details will be given in the following chapters. The basi c state diagram is presented and the various flow conditions are related to this diagram . Some of the recent comprehensive discussions on pneumatic conveying are cited. Keywords Pneumatic conveying Dilute Phase Dense Phase Advantages Disadvantages Positive Pressure Systems Negative Pressure Systems State Diagrams Flow Patterns Bend Flow Stepped Piping Systems 1.1 Introduction Pneumatic conveying involves the transportation of a wide variety of dry powdere d and granular solids in a gas stream. In most cases the gas is normally air. Howe ver, where special conditions prevail (e.g. risk of explosion, health, fire hazards, etc.), different gases are used. This introductory chapter has been written to provide the reader with an overvie w and a practical insight into pneumatic conveying technology.More specific aspect s pertaining to the complex phenomenon which takes place during the pneumatic transport of solids are discussed in subsequent chapters. 1.2 Why Pneumatic Conveying? The concept of pipeline transportation of fluids is by no means modern. The hist ory of its use dates back to antiquity. The Romans, for instance, used lead pipes fo r water supply and sewerage disposal, whilst the Chinese conveyed natural gas through bamboo tubes. The record of pipeline transportation of solids in air is more rec ent with the inception of fans to activate the first pneumatic conveying in 1866. G.E. Klinzing et al., Pneumatic Conveying of Solids: A Theoretical and Practical Approach, Particle Technology Series 8, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-3609-4 1, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010 1 2 1 An Overview of Pneumatic Conveying Systems and Performance The first large-scale application of pneumatic conveyingwas the vacuum conveying of grain in the late nineteenth century. By the mid-1920s, negative and positive pressure conveying of grain was common. Since that time the practice of pneumati c conveying has grown enormously and has extended to cover a wide variety of particulate solids. A survey carried out by the British Hydrodynamics Researc h Association [1] showed that between 1971 and 1977 the pneumatic conveying market in Britain grew by an order of magnitude and that during the one year period 1977 1978 a further 50% increase in the sales of equipment for pneumatic conveying systems was recorded. 1.2.1 Advantages of a Pneumatic Conveying System Pneumatic conveying offers the user the following advantages: 1. Dust-free transportation of a variety of products. 2. Flexibility in routing can be transported vertically and horizontally by the addition of a bend in the pipeline. 3. Distribution to many different areas in a plant and pick-up from several area s.

4. Low maintenance and low manpower costs. 5. Multiple use one pipeline can be used for a variety of products. 6. Security pipelines can be used to convey high-valued products. 7. Ease of automation and control. 1.2.2 Disadvantages of a Pneumatic Conveying System Offset against the advantages, there are certain disadvantages which include: 1. High power consumption. 2. Wear and abrasion of equipment. 3. Incorrect design can result in particle degradation. 4. Limited distance. 5. By virtue of the complex flow phenomena which take place, there is a requirem ent for high levels of skill to design, operate and maintain systems. Because of the high power consumption, pneumatic transportation systems are gene rally more suited to the conveyance of fine particles over shorter distances (up to a few hundred metres). The majority of existing systems have capacities within t he range of 1 to 400 tonnes per hour over distances less than 1,000m with average particle size less than 10mm. The limitations are usually economic rather than technical. However, the economi c factor is changing and recent developments have ensured the transportation of materials at lower energies. Recent applications include the conveyance of up 1.3 What Can Be Conveyed? 3 to 40mm coal [2] in a single lift over 300m vertical and a small number of longd istance pneumatic conveyors [3] transporting various materials over distances up to 3,000 m. With the growing increase in sophistication of pneumatic conveying systems, potential applications are increasing all the time. Thus for the transportation of solid materials, pneumatic conveying should be considered as a prime option and should be evaluated against other modes of solid transportation. 1.3 What Can Be Conveyed? The range of materials suitable for pneumatic conveying is extensive. Virtually all powders and granular materials can be conveyed. Table 1.1 is a partial list of materials which have been successfully conveyed pneumatically. The list is Table 1.1 Materials suitable for pneumatic transport ABS powder Carbon, powdered Acetylsalicylic acid Carbon black Activated earth Cardboard, edge trim and waste Adipic acid Casein Alkali cellulose Cast iron turnings Altulite, powdered Cattle feed, granulated Alumina Cattle feed, pulverized Aluminium fluoride Cellophane, edge trim and waste Aluminium foil, trim or waste Cellulose Aluminium hydrate Cellulose acetate, dry Aluminium shavings Cellulose acetate, wet Aluminium silicate Cement Aluminium sulphate Chalk Ammonium nitrate Charcoal, calibrated, dry Ammonium sulphate Charcoal, fine Anthracite Charcoal granules, activated Antimony oxide Charcoal, wood, fine Apatite Chicory roots, dry Arsenious acid China clay Arsenicous anhydride Chromium sulphate flakes Asbestos fibres or flakes Chromium sulphate, ground

Asbestos, ground Clay, powdered Cobalt ore Bagasse (2 6 in) Cocoa bean shells Bagasse fines Cocoa beans Bakelite powder Cocoa, ground Baryta Coffee beans in silver skin Bauxite Coffee cherries Beetroot pulp, dry Coffee, ground (continued) 4 1 An Overview of Pneumatic Conveying Systems and Performance Table 1.1 (continued) Bentonite Coffee, roasted Bicarbonate of soda Coffee, unroasted Blast furnace dust Coke dust Blast furnace sinter, fine Coke, granular Bleach powder Coke, granular, fine Blende, roasted Coke, petroleum Bones Colmanite Borax, anhydrous Copper shavings Boric acid Copra Bran Copra cakes Brass shavings Cork, crushed Brick, crushed Cork discs Butadiene rubber crumb Cork powder Calamine Corn: oats and barley also waste Calcium chloride Cornflour, coarse Calcium cyanamide Cotton seeds Decolourizing earth Lampblack Dextrine, powdered Lead oxide Diatomacious earth Lichen, dried Dicalcium phosphate Lignite Dolomite Lime, carbonate of Lime, hydrated Edible paste products (small) Limestone Enamel powder Magnesia (magnesium oxide) Feathers Magnesite Feldspar, ground Magnesium carbonate Flax stalk waste Magnesium fluoride Flint grains Maize, broken Flock, dry Maize, draff Flour, alimentary Manganese dioxide Flour, middlings Marble, powdered Flour, rye Matches Flour, wheat Metaethylacetic Fluorspar, ground Mica Fluorine Milk, powdered, high fat Fly ash Milk, powdered, whole Fumaric acid Milk, skimmed, low fat Gelatine, ground Nickel oxide Gelatine, strips Nickel sulphide Glass fibres Nitrocellulose Glass, granulated or ground Nylon polymer, chips and fibres Glue beads Grapes Oilcake flour Grape pips Olive cake Graphite flakes Ossein (continued) 1.3 What Can Be Conveyed? 5 Table 1.1 (continued)

Graphite powder Groundnut cakes, granulated Palm-nut cake Groundnut cakes, powdered Paper edge trim and waste Ground rice, coarse Papermill wood waste, wet Gypsum, fine (anhydrous calcium sulphate) Peanut shells Peat Hemp stalk waste Peat, ground Peas, frozen Ilmenite Phenol resins, crushed Iron formiate Phosphate, ground Iron ore Phosphate, natural Phosphorous pentasulphide Kaolin Phthalic anydride Kisselguhr Pips ground Pitch, granulated Pitch, ground Sodium chlorate Plaster Sodium chloride (table salt) Plastic granules and powders various Sodium citrate crystals Polyethylene, compacted Sodium formiate Polyethylene, expanded Sodium hydrosulphite Polyethylene granules Sodium nitrate Polyethylene powder Sodium perborate Polyester, fibres and granules Sodium sulphate Polypropylene powder and granules Sodium sulphate, ground Polystyrene beads Sodium sulphite Polystyrene, ground Sodium tripolyphosphate PVC granules Soot PVC powder Soya bean cakes Pomace Starch Potash Steel turnings Potassium chloride Straw, chopped Potassium nitrate Sugar, granulated Potato chips, frozen Sugar, icing Potato pulp, dry Sulphur Potato starch Sunflower seed husks Pyrites, crude, ground Pyrites, roasted Talc Terephthalic acid Quartz powder Titanium dioxide, grains Quartz rock (80 mm) Titanium dioxide, powder Quicklime Tobacco Trichlorocyanic acid Rubber crumb Rubber powder Undecanoic amino Uranium tetrafluoride Salt Urea beads Salt cake Urea formaldehyde granules (continued) 6 1 An Overview of Pneumatic Conveying Systems and Performance Table 1.1 (continued) Sand Sand, coated Vermiculite Sawdust Vinyl acetate Semolina Silica, anhydrous ground Wood, shredded Silica, hydrated Wood shavings Silica gel Slag, ground Slag dust Yeast, dried Soap powder

Soap flakes Zeolite Sodium carbonate, dense Zinc oxide Sodium carbonate, light Zinc, powdered by no means exhaustive. Rocks of up to 70mm size, live chickens and finished manufactured parts of unusual geometry have been conveyed. Generally, the larger and denser the material, the higher the gas velocity required for operation and the higher the power consumption. It is often stated that particles greater than 15mm in size may not be suitable. There are, of course, exceptions to such a rul e. Another rule of thumb is that the inside diameter of the conveying pipe should be at least three times larger than the largest size of material to be conveyed to prevent blockage inside the pipe. The ideal candidates for pneumatic conveying are free-flowing, non-abrasive and non-fibre materials. However, with the development of new types of conveyors operating at low gas velocities, cohesive, abrasive and friable materials can be handled. 1.4 What Constitutes a Pneumatic Conveying System? In essence, a pneumatic conveying system consists of four distinct zones, each r equiring its own specialized hardware to effect the required operation (Fig. 1.1). The four zones are considered as follows. 1.4.1 The Prime Mover The prime mover is an essential element in a pneumatic conveying system. A wide range of compressors, blowers, fans and vacuum pumps are used to provide the necessary energy to the conveying gas. Pertinent to the design of a pneumatic conveying system is the need to identify both the gas flow and the pressure (pos itive or negative) required to effect reliable transportation. 1.4 What Constitutes a Pneumatic Conveying System? 7 REVERSE JET FILTER SOLIDS GAS SEPARATION CYCLONE BAG FILTER CONVEYING FEEDING, MIXING ACCELERATING VENTURI PRIMEMOVER FAN BLOWER RECIP.COMPRESSOR SCREW COMPRESSOR ROTARY VANE VALVE SCREW BLOW VESSEL PIPING COUPLING WEAR RESIST BEND DIVERTER Fig. 1.1 The pneumatic conveying system By virtue of the fact that a wide range of pressures is used for the transportat ion of solids, an understanding of the flow of gases through pipelines, the need for dr

ying, cooling and filtering the gas, etc. is required. Full details pertaining to the flow of gases in pipes are described in Chapter 2 . 1.4.2 Feeding, Mixing and Acceleration Zone This zone is considered one of the most crucial areas in any pneumatic conveying system. In this particular zone the solids are introduced into the flowing gas s tream. By virtue of the fact that the solids are essentially at rest, a large change in momentum occurs when the solids are mixed with the flowing gas. Associated with this momentum change is the need to provide an acceleration zone. If the physical space permits, the zone normally consists of a horizontal piece of pipe of a certain length designed such that the solids are accelerated to som e steady flow state. Essential to the effective operation of such a pneumatic conveying system is the selection of a feeder which meets both the requirements of the solids as well as the requirements of the system. Full details pertaining to feeder design are describ ed in Chapter 7. 8 1 An Overview of Pneumatic Conveying Systems and Performance 1.4.3 The Conveying Zone Once the solids have passed through the acceleration zone, they enter into the c onveying zone. The conveying zone consists of piping. The selection of piping is based on a number of factors including the abrasiveness of the product, pressure requi rements, etc. The conveying zone can have a number of bends and diverter valves in order to change flow direction. The selection of an appropriate bend is discussed in Chapter 11. By virtue of the fact that a bend constitutes a change of direction, the solids are decelerated as they move through a bend. At the exit of each bend an acceleration zone is normally required to re-entrain the solids. 1.4.4 Gas Solids Separation Zone In this zone the solids are separated from the gas stream in which they have bee n conveyed. With pressure conveying systems it is only necessary to maintain a pressure drop across the collector which will be sufficient to separate the soli ds from the gas. The selection of an adequate gas solid separation system is dependent upon a number of factors, the primary factor being size of the solids requiring to be separated from the gas stream. A number of different configurations of gas solid separation systems are used in pneumatic conveying systems. Details pertaining t o the design and selection of these devices are described in Chapter 10. 1.5 Modes of Pneumatic Conveying For ease of classification, pneumatic conveying systems can be categorized into various modes. Perhaps the most suitable classification is based on the average particle concentration in the pipeline. In terms of this definition, pneumatic conveying systems can be classified into two distinct categories: Dilute phase systems Dense phase systems Unstable flow regime Unstable/stable flow regime

Stable flow regime For simplicity, each phase is categorized in terms of the mass flow ratio . /, which is defined as the ratio of the mass of solids .mP p/ to the mass of conveying ai r .mP f/. Thus in terms of the above we have: 1.5 Modes of Pneumatic Conveying 9 Fig. 1.2 Flow patterns in a horizontal conveying pipe Flow direction Unstable flow region Stable flow region Mode Mass flow ratio Dilute phase 0 15 Dense phase Greater than 15 A schematic of the typical horizontal flow patterns that can take place in these various modes is shown in Fig. 1.2. 1.5.1 Dilute Phase Dilute phase (sometimes referred to as lean phase) systems in general employ large volumes of gas at high velocities. The gas stream carries the materials as discrete particles by means of lift and drag forces acting on the individual particles. Dilute phase systems constitute the most widely used of all pneumatic conveying systems. 10 1 An Overview of Pneumatic Conveying Systems and Performance 1.5.2 Dense Phase A reduction in the gas velocity to a value lower than the saltation velocity (in horizontal flow) (Section 1.8) results in a non-uniform distribution of solids over the cross-section of the conveying pipe. The conveying process takes place with a certain proportion of the solids flowin g through the upper portion of the cross-section of the pipe together with a highl y concentrated product stream, corresponding to an expanded moving layer. This moving layer progresses at a lower velocity in the lower part of the cross-section. Depending upon the characteristics of the solids, the gas velocity, solids flow rate and such factors as pipe roughness, pipe size, etc., the flow patterns in t he dense phase mode can vary from being unstable to stable or an intermediate unstable/st able regime. Flow patterns in the dense phase mode can vary from conditions in which the solids completely pack the pipe and move as a continuous dense plug to situation s where the solids on the bottom of the pipe move as a series of dunes with a dilu te phase layer of solids moving above the dunes. The stable flow situations result in a smooth conveying process whilst the unstable situation is characterized by sometimes violent pressure surges as the moving layer breaks up. Some researchers have attempted to define an intermediate medium phase mode. Since this definition was confined to a limited group of solids with good fluidization characteristics (Chapter 3), it is believed that the above definition s of dilute and dense phase adequately cover all flow situations. 1.6 Basic Pneumatic Conveying Systems In addition to classifying pneumatic conveying in terms of modes, a further clas sification