2.4.

Constraint Boundary Analysis

To proceed, it is necessary to have preliminary estimates for CL max, the lift-drag polar, and esercitazioni del corso di data. di Aeromobili Materiale per le engine performanceProgrtto These data are based on current technology

Table 2.El
Mission phases and segments
1-2 Takeoff

Selected AAF specifications

Performance requirement 2000 ft PA, 100E STo = SG ~- S R <<1500 ft _ kTo = 1.2, #tO = 0.05, max power Vro, tR = 3 s, max power 1.5M/30 kft, no afterburning (if possible) 30,000 ft 1.6M, one 360 deg 5g sustained turn, with afterburning 0.9M, two 360 deg 5g sustained turn, with afterburning 0.8 -+ 1.6M, At < 50 s, max power 2000 ft PA, 100F, SL = SIR + SBR < 1500 ft krD = 1.15, tFR = 3 S, /ZB = 0.18 Drag chute diameter 15.6 ft, deployment <2.5 s 1.8M/40 kft, max power

Acceleration Rotation 6-7 and 8-9 7-8 Supersonic penetration and escape dash Combat Turn 1 Turn2 Acceleration 13-14 Landing Free roll Braking

Max Mach number RFP para. C. 1

a)
0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 K1 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 0.0 b) 1.4 TR = 1.08 T h 1.2
r u
I i n t n I i

C D = K1C L
I ' ' '

+Coo, CLmax=2.0
' r ' ' ' '

0.040 ,,: 0.035 0.030 Coo 0.025 0.020

C~o...~/
___ / ~

./

"'~'XK 1

0.015 0.010 0.005

0.000 2.0

0.5

1.0 Mach Number

1.5

/_ Max../

1.05 ...... - -.. 1.00

-.
",

\
\

s 1.0 t L
a

\
TR = 1.08

0.8

1.05

P 0.6

0.05 0.00 0.0

I i n t n I i

0.005
= n
I

0.000 2.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

Materiale per le esercitazioni del corso di Progrtto di Aeromobili Mach Number

b) 1.4 TR = 1.08 T h 1.2
r u

/_ Max../

1.05 ...... - -.. 1.00

-.
",

\
\

s 1.0 t
a 38

\
TR = 1.08

0.8

AIRCRAFT ENGINE DESIGN

"%

1.05

S 2.3.2 Propulsion
e

P 0.6

The variation of installed engine thrust with Mach number, altitude, and after0.4 burner operation can be estimated by developing a simple algebraic equation that Max has been fit 40 kft to either existing data of company-published performance curves or 0.2 predicted data based on the output of performance cycle analysis (see Chapter 5) Mil with estimates made for installation losses. The following algebraic equations for 1 installed engine thrust lapse are based on the expected performance of advanced engines in the 2000 era and beyond. 1.0 These models use the nondimensional tem0.0 0.50 1.5 2.0 perature (8 and 80) and nondimensional pressure (8 and 80), defined next, and the Mach Number throttle ratio (TR) described in Appendix D. The rationale for these models has Fig. 2.El Preliminary basis that is developed in Mattingly 6 and lapse. a sound, fundamental AAF data: a) aerodynamic data; b) installed thrustconfirmed by the analysis of Appendix D. 42
.0 " "

8 = T / T , td and 6=P/P~ta
and

8o=Tt/T~td=8(l+ff~-M~)
_Z_

(2.52a)

60=PJP~td=6

1+

(2.52b)

High bypass ratio turbofan (Mo < 0.9) 8o < TR ot = 6o{1 - 0.49v/~o} 8o > TR o t = 6 0 { 1 - 0 . 4 9 v / - ~ o Low bypass ratio, mixed flow turbofan
Maximum power:

3(80 -rR ]

1.5 T Mo ]

(2.53

8o < TR o t = 8 o 8o > TR ot = 6o{1 - 3.5(80 - TR)/8o}

Military power: (2.54a)

Oo < TR a = 0 . 6 6 o 8o > TR
= 0.66o{1 - 3.8(80 - TR)/Oo} (2.54b)

Turbojet
Maximum power:

8o < TR t~ = 6o{1 - 0.3(80 - 1) - 0 . 1 v ~ o } 8o > T R

ot=6o

{ 1-0.3(80-1)-0.1v/Moo

l'5(8--TR)}
0o

(2"55a)

Military power:

8o < T R o t = 0.86o{1 - 0.16x/~o} 8o > TR

a = 0.880 { 1 - 0.16v/--~o

24(8o--TR) [ (9 + Mo)8o I

(2.55b)

M0 < 0.I

c~=80

Oo< TR

o t : 8 0 { 1 - 0 . 9 6 ( M 0 - 1 ) 1/4}

3(O-TR) Materiale>TR le ~ = 8 0 { 1 - 0 . 9 6del 0 - 1 ) 1/4-Progrtto di Aeromobili Oo per esercitazioni ( M corso di 8.13(M0-0.1) ] (2"56)
2.3.3 Weight Fraction

CONSTRAINT ANALYSIS

39

In the computation of every constraint, the instantaneous weight fraction (fl) of Turboprop the aircraft is required. An initial numerical estimate for this weight fraction at each mission junction must be based on experience. To provide you with guidance M0 < 0.I along the for these estimates, the instantaneous weight fraction c~=80 mission of two typical aircraft, a fighter aircraft and a cargo or passenger aircraft, are shown in o t : 8 0 { 1 - 0 . 9 6 ( M 0 - 1 ) 1/4} Figs. 2.12 and 2.13, respectively.

Oo< TR
~=80

2.4 Example Constraint Analysis {

The performance requirements of the Air-to-Air Fighter (AAF) aircraft Request for Proposal (RFP) in Chapter 1 that might constrain the permissible aircraft takeoff thrust loading (TsL/Wro) and wing loading (Wro/S) are listed in Table 2.El. In 2.3.3 Weight Fraction this example, we shall translate each of these performance requirements into a constraint boundary on a diagram of takeoff thrust loading vs wing loading.weight fraction (fl) of In the computation of every constraint, the instantaneous This will be accomplished with each requirement by developing an equation for the the aircraft is loadings in An initial numerical estimate for this weight fraction at limiting allowable required. the form 48 AIRCRAFT ENGINE DESIGN each mission junction must be based on experience. To provide you with guidance Z {(TsL/ Wro), (Wro/ S)} = 0

Oo>TR

1 - 0 . 9 6 ( M 0 - 1 ) 1/4- 8.13(M0-0.1)

3(O-TR) ]

(2"56)

TsL/Wro because of the bunching of the other constraints in the same neighborSo c se im ..............~ bsoni Crui Cl b Escape ~=:~ ~ hood. The good side of this situation is that the resulting engine will be running 2.4 Example Constraint Analysis so that its size will not be made exnear its full thrust at many flight conditions, cessively large by any single requirement, and its performance is liable to remain The performance requirements often happens when the RFP is the result of Request of the Air-to-Air Fighter (AAF) aircraft high over the entire mission. This forthoughtful consideration and balancing of theconstrain the permissible aircraft takeoff Proposal (RFP) in Chapter 1 that might requirements. thrust loading (TsL/Wro) and wing loading (Wro/S) are listed in Table 2.El. In 3) The drag chute is a bargain. Without it TslJ Wro would increase beyond any reasonable limit shall Wro/S = 50.8 of these no drag chute. this example, webecausetranslate each lbf/ft2 with performance requirements into a ~ ~ 4) ~ The throttle ratio a migrated of . . . . . . . thrust loading vs wing 1.15 constraint boundary onhas diagram in the direction of the supercruise 00 = loading. This takeoff (see Appendix D). will be accomplished with each requirement by developing an equation for the ~~oen~ ~ ~ limiting allowable loadings in!/the form I And #'~ .......... ~ ~ Evaluating Ps. 1 1At this point~in the design process, itCombatsurprise you to find may AirPatrol t Land / ~ J ml ~ that a great deal of preliminary information(Wro/ S)} available about the AAE Z {(TsL/ Wro), is already = 0 For example, once Tsl./Wro and Wro/S are selected, it is possible to compute Pthe weight specific excess power (Ps) for flight at any chosen/3, n, altitude, and = R' Warm-up andTakeoff velocity. To see this, combine Eqs. (2.2b) and (2.1 l) with R = 0 to find that

for these estimates, the instantaneous weight fraction along the mission of two decreasing the a fighter gs), and and a cargo constraint (by decreasing the typical aircraft, number of aircraft the supercruiseor passenger aircraft, are shown in supercruise Mach number) simultaneously would Combat to reduce the required do little Figs. 2.12 and 2.13, respectively.

oovorEx..., S=roC

Fig. 2.12 Instantaneous weight fraction: typical fighter aircraft.

Combat ~

P~ = V

So c se im ..............~ bsoni Crui Cl b

\-~oroJ - K1

q \ - - - ~ - j - Kz n

Escape ~=:~

~/q(WTo/S)

(2.E4)

Equation (2.E4) was used in AEDsys to compute the contours of constant Ps for the preliminary AAF of Fig. 2.E3 at military power with n = 1 and/~ = 0.97. The results, which are displayed in Fig. 2.E5, are remarkably similar to that of "real" airplanes and contain useful guidance for future pilots of the AAF, as well

oovorEx..., S=roC
[ I I ] ] W/S = 64 _Beta = 0.97 g's = 1.00

70 60

Ps (min I I I [ ]

0, max - 600, incr - 50 fl/sec) Standard Day Atmosphere ] I I [ ]

.......

~~oen~ I And ,o t Land

40

/ R'

~ #'~

~11

/ ! .......... ~ml ~

~ ~

~ Combat Patrol Air

P= 30
o

AIt

(kit) 20

Warm-up andTakeoff

- TR = 1.07 - A B off Engine #2 .Aircrat~ #5 Min time

Fig. 2.12 Instantaneous weight fraction: typical fighter aircraft.

10

100

500

1000 Velocity (ft/sec)

1500

2000

Fig. 2.E5 Preliminary AAF Ps contours at military power with minimum time-toclimb path.

Materiale per le esercitazioni del corso di Progrtto di Aeromobili

Appendix B Altitude Tables

British Engineering (BE) units

h
(kft) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Standard day 0

Cold day 0

Hot day 0

Tropic day 0

(P / Pstd)
1.0000 0.9644 0.9298 0.8963 0.8637 0.8321 0.8014 0.7717 0.7429 0.7149 0.6878 0.6616 0.6362 0.6115 0.5877 0.5646 0.5422 0.5206 0.4997 0.4795 0.4599 0.4410 0.4227 0.4051 0.3880 0.3716 0.3557 0.3404 0.3256 0.3113 0.2975 0.2843 0.2715

(T/Ts~)
1.0000 0.9931 0.9863 0.9794 0.9725 0.9656 0.9588 0.9519 0.9450 0.9381 0.9313 0.9244 0.9175 0.9107 0.9038 0.8969 0.8901 0.8832 0.8763 0.8695 0.8626 0.8558 0.8489 0.8420 0.8352 0.8283 0.8215 0.8146 0.8077 0.8009 0.7940 0.7872 0.7803

(T/Ts~)
0.7708 0.7972 0.8237 0.8501 0.8575 0.8575 0.8575 0.8575 0.8575 0.8575 0.8565 0.8502 0.8438 0.8375 0.8312 0.8248 0.8185 0.8121 0.8058 0.7994 0.7931 0.7867 0.7804 0.7740 0.7677 0.7613 0.7550 0.7486 0.7423 0.7360 0.7296 0.7233 0.7222

(T/Ts~)
1.0849 1.0774 1.0700 1.0626 1.0552 1.0478 1.0404 1.0330 1.0256 1.0182 1.0108 1.0034 0.9960 0.9886 0.9812 0.9738 0.9664 0.9590 0.9516 0.9442 0.9368 0.9294 0.9220 0.9145 0.9071 0.8997 0.8923 0.8849 0.8775 0.8701 0.8627 0.8553 0.8479

(T/Tstd)
1.0594 1.0520 1.0446 1.0372 1.0298 1.0224 1.0150 1.0076 1.0002 0.9928 0.9854 0.9780 0.9706 0.9632 0.9558 0.9484 0.9410 0.9336 0.9262 0.9188 0.9114 0.9040 0.8965 0.8891 0.8817 0.8743 0.8669 0.8595 0.8521 0.8447 0.8373 0.8299 0.8225

h (kft) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

(continued)
511

512 AIRCRAFT ENGINE DESIGN Materiale per le esercitazioni del corso di Progrtto di Aeromobili
B r i t i s h E n g i n e e r i n g (BE) units ( c o n t i n u e d )

h (kft) 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100

Standard day 0

Cold day 0

Hot day 0

Tropic day 0

(P/Pstd)
0.2592 0.2474 0.2360 0.2250 0.2145 0.2044 0.1949 0.1858 0.1688 0.1534 0.1394 0.1267 0.1151 0.1046 0.09507 0.08640 0.07852 0.07137 0.06486 0.05895 0.05358 0,04871 0.04429 0.04028 0.03665 0.03336 0.03036 0.02765 0.02518 0.02294 0.02091 0.01906 0.01738 0.01585 0.01446 0.01320 0.01204 0.01100

(T/Tstd)
0.7735 0.7666 0.7598 0.7529 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7519 0.7521 0.7542 0.7563 0,7584 0.7605 0.7626 0.7647 0.7668 0.7689 0.7710 0.7731 0.7752 0.7772 0.7793 0.7814 0.7835 0.7856 0.7877

(T/Tstd)
0.7222 0,7222 0.7222 0.7222 0.7222 0.7222 0.7222 0.7222 0.7222 0.7095 0.6907 0.6719 0.6532 0.6452 0.6452 0.6452 0.6452 0.6452 0.6514 0.6609 0.6704 0.6799 0.6894 0.6990 0.7075 0.7058 0.7042 0.7026 0.7009 0.6993 0.6976 0.6960 0.6944 0.6927 0.6911 0.6894 0.6878 0.6862

(T/Tstd)
0.8405 0.8331 0.8257 0.8183 0.8109 0.8035 0.7961 0.7939 0.7956 0.7973 0.7989 0,8006 0.8023 0.8040 0.8057 0.8074 0.8091 0.8108 0.8125 0.8142 0.8159 0.8166 0.8196 0.8226 0.8255 0.8285 0.8315 0.8344 0.8374 0.8403 0.8433 0.8463 0.8492 0.8522 0.8552 0.8581 0.8611 0.8640

(T/Tstd)
0.8151 0.8077 0.8003 0.7929 0.7855 0.7781 0.7707 0.7633 0.7485 0.7337 0.7188 0,7040 0.6892 0.6744 0.6768 0.6849 0.6929 0.7009 0.7090 0.7170 0.7251 0.7331 0.7396 0.7448 0.7501 0.7553 0.7606 0.7658 0.7711 0.7763 0.7816 0.7868 0.7921 0.7973 0.8026 0.8078 0.8130 0.8183

h (kft) 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100

Density: p = Pstd r~ = Pstd ( 6 / 0 ) .

Speed of sound: a =

astd~#O.

Reference values: Pstd

2116.2 l b f / f t 2 ;

Tstd

518.69R; Pstd = 0.07647 lbm/ft3; astd = 1116 ft/s.

30

0.01181

0.7861

0.6874

0.8617

0.8142

30

Density: p = Pstd a = Pstd (3/0).

Materiale per values:Pst d = 101,325 N/m2; Tstd di Aeromobili Pstd Reference le esercitazioni del corso di Progrtto = 288.15 K;

Speed of sound: a = astd ~'0. = 1.225 kg/m3; astd = 340.3 m/s.

US Bureau of Standards, Standard Atmosphere 1976

A computer model (e.g., ATMOS program) of the standard day atmosphere can be written from the following material extracted from Ref. 4 of Chapter 1. All of the following is limited to geometric altitudes below 86 km--the original tables go higher, up to 1000 km. In addition, the correction for variation in mean molecular weight with altitude is very small below 86 km, so is neglected. The geometric or actual altitude (h) is related to the geo-potential altitude (z), only used for internal calculations (a correction for variation of acceleration of gravity, used only for pressure and density calculations), by z = roh/(ro + h) where r0 = 6,356.577 km is the earth's radius. The variation of temperature (T) with geo-potential altitude is represented by a continuous, piecewise linear relation, T = Ti + Li(z - zi), with fit coefficients i=0through7,

i 0

zi (kin) 0 11 20 32 47 51 71 84.852

Li (K/km) -6.5 0.0 +1.0 +2.8 0.0 -2.8 -2.0

1
2 3 4 5 6 7

Materiale per le esercitazioni del corso di Progrtto di Aeromobili 516 AIRCRAFT ENGINE DESIGN

with To = 288.15 K given, the corresponding values of temperature ~ can be readily generated from the given piecewise linear curve-fit. Note that z7 corresponds exactly to h = 86km. The corresponding pressure (P), also a piecewise continuous function, is given by

P=Pi

LifO,

or

P=Piexp

z,)

Li=O

where go = 9.80665 m/s2, R* = 8,314.32 J/krnol-K, W0 = 28.9644 kg/kmol, and the pressure calculations start from P0 = 101,325.0 N/m2. The density (p) is given simply by the ideal gas law,

p--

PWo R*T

Cold, Hot, and Tropic Day Temperature Profiles

A computer model (e.g., ATMOS program) of the temperature profiles for Cold, Hot, and Tropic days can be written from the following material extracted from linear curve-fits of the data in Ref. 5 and 6 of Chapter 1. The following is limited to pressure altitudes below 30.5 km. The variation of temperature (T) with pressure altitude is represented by a continuous, piecewise linear relation,

T = Ti + Li(h - hi),
with fit coefficients Cold day hi (kin) Li (K/km) 0 1 3 9.5 13 15.5 18.5 22.5 +25 0 -6.0 0 -8.88 0 +4.6 -0.775

i = 0 through 7,

i
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Hot day hi (kin) Li (K]km) 0 12 20.5 -7.0 +0.8 +1.4

Tropic day hi (kin) Li (K]km) 0 16 21 -7.0 +3.8 +2.48

With To given below for the respective temperature profile, the corresponding values of temperature T/can be readily generated from the given piecewise linear curve-fit. Sea level base temperature Day To (K) Cold 222.10 Hot 312.60 Tropic 305.27
7

determines the other three using the subroutines FAIR and MASSFP. In addition, the high- and low-turbines have an iterative system of equations (Sec. 5.2.4) that determine their off-design performance with variable gas properties. Outlines of the subroutines TURBC and TURB are given here for the high-pressure cooled Materiale per le esercitazioni del corso di Progrtto di Aeromobili turbine and the low-pressure turbine, respectively. Subroutine RGCOMPR (Item, Tt, f, M, Tt/ T, Pt/ P, MFP) Inputs: Item, Tt, f, and one of the following: M, Tt/T, Pt/P, andMFP Outputs: M, Tt/ T, Pt/ P, and MFP Select Case Item Case 1---Mach known MASSFP (Tt, f, M, Tt/T, Pt/P, MFP) Cases 2 and 3 - - T t / T or Pt/P known FAIR(l, f, Tt , ht, Prt, (at, Cpt, Rt , Yt , at) If Item = 2 then T--

T, T,/T

FAIR (2, f, T, h, Pr , (b, cp , R, y, a) Else

Pr--

Pr~ t', / e

FAIR (3, f, T, h, Pr, ~b, Cp, R, V, a) End if V 2 = 2(ht - h)gc If V 2 < 0 then M=0

T = Tt
Else M-End If
548 AIRCRAFT ENGINE DESIGN
547 MASSFP (Tt, f, M, Tt/T, P t / P , MFP) Cases 4 and 5 - - M F P known If Item = 4 then M = 2 else M = 0.5 A M = 0.1 MASSFP (Tt, f, M, Tt/T, P t / P , MFPo)

M=M+AM
MASSFP (Tt, f, M, Tt/T, P t / P , MFPn)

MFPerror = [MFPn - MFPol If MFPe .... > 0.00001 then M F P - MFPn AM = AM M F P . - MFPo MFPo = MFPn
GOTO 4 End If End Select Return Subroutine MASSFP (Tt, f, M, Tt/ T, Pt/ P, MFP) Inputs: Case, Tt, f, and M Outputs: Tt / T, Pt / P , and M F P FAIR (1, f, Tt, ht, Prt, dpt, cpt, Rt, Yt, at)

V= A

Mat
1 + {(Yt -- 1)/2} M2 V2

h =ht - -2gc FAIR (2, f, T, h, Pr, 4), Cp, R, y, a) Vn = M a

If V -~ 0 then Ve.... -- - else Verror = V - V. V If IVerrorl > 0.00001 then V = V.; Go to A

V - V.

Tt/T = -T

T~

MFP-- Pt/~
Return Subroutine TURBC

Pr~ Pt/P = - Pr M ~T,

T

Inputs: Outputs: rrtl4, TtH, Tt4.5 F A I R ( l , f, Tt4, ht4, Pro, dPt4,Cpt4, Rt4, )It4, at4) MASSFP (Tt4, f, M4, T4, MFP4) F A I R ( I , 0, Tt3, ht3, Prt3, (9t3, Cpt3, Rt3, Yt3, at3)

{Tt4, f, (A4/A4.5), M4, Ma.5, 7hH, Tta.sn, Tt3, fl, el, e2;rctH, r,H, T,4.5} Tt4, f, (A4/A4.5), M4, M4.5, rhH, Tt4.SR, Tt3, fl, el, e2

Materiale per le esercitazioni del corso di Progrtto di Aeromobili