CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Learning about the parts of speech is the first step in grammar study just as learning the letters of the alphabet is the first step to being able to read and write. From learning the parts of speech we begin to understand the use or function of words and how words are joined together to make meaningful communication. To understand what a part of speech is, you must understand the idea of putting similar things together into groups or categories. Let's look at some examples of categories.

COLORS blue red yellow green black

FRUITS banana apple orange grape lemon

DRINKS milk water soda beer coffee

LANGUAGES Spanish Arabic Japanese English Korean

Colors, fruits, drinks, and languages are categories. If I tell you that Grebo is a language, you would understand exactly what Grebo is. If we did not have the category language, it would be hard to explain what is meant by the word Grebo. It is very convenient to have categories to talk about similar things. Let's look at some more examples of categories. In the list below, which does not belong with the others? a) violin b) hammer c) drums d) piano e) guitar If you chose hammer, you are right. Violin, drums, piano, and guitars are used to

make music, but a hammer is not used to make music. Hammer doesn't fit with the other words because it is a tool and all of the others are musical instruments. Let's try another example. Which of these does not belong with the others? a) hammer b) saw c) violin

c) screwdriver d) wrench This time, the word violin does not belong because it is not a tool. It is very useful to have categories like musical instruments and tools to organize our ideas. The parts of speech are categories used to organize or classify words according to how they are used. We use parts of speech as a way to make it easier to talk about language. The philosopher Aristotle and later scientists studied animals and classified them according to what they have in common. For example, eagles, robins and sparrows are kinds of birds; sharks, salmon and tuna are kinds of fish; and dogs, horses and elephants are kinds of mammals. Aristotle and others also studied language and classified words according to what they have in common. We usually use 8 This categories or parts of speech to classify all the words we use in English.

classification is not perfect. Sometimes it is hard to tell which category a word belongs in. The same word may belong in different categories depending on how it is used. There may be better ways to classify English than by using the 8 parts of speech. But this classification has been used for a long time and many grammar books use it, so it is easier to keep on using it. It is possible to speak or learn a language without knowing the parts of speech, but for most of us, knowing about parts of speech makes things easier. Here is an example of how it can be helpful to know about the parts of speech. Look at the sentence: The man surreptitiously entered the room. You probably don't know the meaning of the word surreptitiously, but if you know about parts of speech, you will recognize that it is an adverb and that it tells you something about how the man entered the room. You may still not understand the exact meaning of the word, but you can understand the whole sentence better than if you did not know about parts of speech. When you look up a word in a dictionary, you will find not only the meaning of the word but also what part of speech it is. This information is very helpful in understanding the full meaning of the word and knowing how to use it. The 8 parts of speech that are used to describe English words are:

Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Pronouns Prepositions Conjunctions Articles

CHAPTER II NOUNS
A noun is often defined as a word which names a person, place or thing. Here are some examples of nouns: boy, river, friend, Mexico, triangle, day, school, truth,

university, idea, John F. Kennedy, movie, aunt, vacation, eye, dream, flag, teacher, class, grammar. John F. Kennedy is a noun because it is the name of a person; Mexico is a noun because it is the name of a place; and boy is a noun because it is the name of a thing. Some grammar books divide nouns into 2 groups - proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns are nouns which begin with a capital letter because it is the name of a specific or particular person place or thing. Some examples of proper nouns are: Mexico, John F. Kennedy, Atlantic Ocean, February, Monday, New York City, Susan, Maple Street, Burger King. If you see a word beginning with a capital letter in in the middle of a sentence, it is probably a proper noun. Most nouns are common nouns and do not begin with a capital letter. Many nouns have a special plural form if there is more than one. For example, we say one book but two books. Plurals are usually formed by adding an -s (books) or -es (boxes) but some plurals are formed in different ways (child - children, person people, mouse - mice, sheep - sheep). KINDS OF NOUNS: Common Nouns are names of people (e.g. man), things (e.g. books), animals (e.g. monkey) and places (church). Proper Nouns are special names of people (e.g. George Bush), things (e.g. Financial Times), animals (e.g. King Kong) and places (e.g. Paris). A proper noun begins with a Capital Letter. Abstract Nouns An abstract noun is the name of something that we can only think of or feel but cannot see (e.g. friendship). Collective Nouns are names used for a number of people, things or animals together and treated as one. For example: a group of friends, a bunch of bananas, a litter of puppies. Countable and Uncountable Nouns Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted (e.g. trees). Uncountable nouns are nouns which cannot be counted. (e.g. smoke). Countable and Uncountable Nouns are used with the following:

Countable Noun a, an, a few, several, many, some, plenty of, a lot of, a large number of Nouns have four genders:

Uncountable Noun a little, much, some, plenty of, a lot of, a large amount of, a great deal of

1. Masculine Gender The masculine gender is used for all males. Example:
boy, man

2. Feminine Gender The feminine gender is used for all females. Example:
girl, woman

3. Common Gender The common gender is used where the noun can be both
male and female. Example: cousin, friend, person, child, student

4. Neuter Gender The neuter gender is used for things which have no life or
sex. Example: table, chair. Singular and Plural Nouns A noun that shows only one person (e.g. a girl), thing (e.g. pencil), animal (e.g. tiger) or place (e.g. market) is called a singular noun). A noun that shows more than one person (e.g. girls), thing (e.g. pencils), animal (e.g. tigers) or place (e.g. markets) is called a plural noun.

How plural nouns are formed. By adding s. By adding es to nouns ending in ch, s, sh and x. beach beaches peach peaches

branch ditch boss bus chorus brush bush dish box fax fox

branches ditches bosses buses choruses brushes bushes dishes boxes faxes foxes

speech watch glass lens pass fish lash wish hoax six tax

speeches watches glasses lenses passes fishes lashes wishes hoaxes sixes taxes

By adding es to nouns ending in o. buffalo cargo echo buffaloes cargoes echoes potato mosquito tomato potatoes mosquitoes tomatoes

By adding s to nouns ending in o. banjo bamboo radio banjos bamboos radios patio photo video patios photos videos

By replacing y with ies. baby fly hobby babies flies hobbies lorry navy puppy lorries navies puppies

By adding s to nouns ending in y. boy day donkey boys days donkeys key toy turkey keys toys turkeys

By replaying f or fe with ves. calf half life calves halves lives loaf self wife loaves selves wives

By adding s to nouns ending in f or fe. chief dwarf gulf chiefs dwarfs gulfs hoof reef roof hoofs reef roofs

By changing vowels. foot goose mouse Some nouns have aircraft crossroads furniture Exceptional plural. child crisis mouse children crises mice ox passer-by radius oxen passers-by radii feet geese mice same words for plural aircraft crossroads furniture louse tooth woman and singular. music series sheep lice teeth women music series sheep

FORMING NOUNS Nouns can be formed from nouns, verbs and adjectives. They are formed by adding certain letters to them. Nouns widow friend king Verbs add fail give Adjectives clean sad beautiful Nouns widowhood friendship kingdom Nouns addition failure gift Nouns cleanliness sadness

beauty

CHAPTER III VERBS Verbs are words that show action. Every sentence must have a verb. A verb is not always one word. It may be made up of more than one word. Auxiliary verbs The words: am, is, are, was, and were are verbs. They are forms of the verb to be. They are helping verbs called auxiliary verbs. If the subject of a sentence is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject of a sentence is plural, the verb must be plural. The verb must agree with the subject in number. Examples of subjects and verbs being singular: The man is sleeping. She goes to the market. The student does his homework every day. The train has arrived. Man, she, student and train are known as subjects. The subjects are all singular.The verbs is, goes, does and has are all singular too. Examples of subjects and verbs being plural: The men are sleeping. They go to the market. The students do their homework every day. The trains have arrived.

Men, they, students and trains are known as subjects. The subjects are all plural. The verbs 'are', go, do and have are all plural too.

1 2nd 3rd

st

Singular subject/verb I am do You are do He is does She is does It is does

have have has has has

eat eat eats eats eats

Plural subject/verb We are do You are do They are do They are do They are do

have have have have have

eat eat eat eat eat

Other singular and plural subjects that take on singular and plural verbs: Subjects with words like each, every, any, no, none and nobody take on the singular verbs. Examples: Each student is given a pen. Every child is happy watching the show. Nobody is allowed to walk on the grass. Uncountable nouns always take singular verbs. Examples: Rice is eaten in many countries. There is oil on the floor. Salt is added to make the food taste better. Subjects with words like both, all, many, some, several and a number of take on a plural verb. Examples: Both of you have to come home early. All of us want to be happy. Some of my friends are female. Two or more subjects joined by and always take a plural verb. Examples: My brother and his friends like to play football. His father and mother are watching television.

Transitive and intransitive verbs The verb which needs an object to make its meaning clear or complete is called a transitive verb. Example: He feeds a cat. The word cat is called the object of the verb feeds. The object can be a noun or a pronoun. The intransitive verb does not need an object but the meaning is clear or complete. Example: He ran. The verb ran does not need an object. She reads every day. (No object) He eats quickly. (No object)

The Finite verb The finite verb changes with the subject. The subject is the person, thing, animal or place we refer to. When the subject is in the first or second person or is plural, the verb does not change. When the subject is in the third person or is singular, the verb changes from, say, eat to eats. The verb eat is a finite verb. Every sentence must have a finite verb.

Subject First Person Second Person Third Person Third Person Third Person The pen/s The elephant/s The house/s The Infinitive

Singular subject I eat You eat He eats She eats It eats The pen is The elephant does The house has

Plural subject We eat You eat They eat They eat They eat The pens are The elephants do not The houses have

The infinitive is a verb that is followed by to and does not change with the subject. Subject First Person Second Person Singular Subject I want to play. You want to play. Plural Subject We want to play. You want to play.

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Third Person

He wants to play. They She wants to play. They It wants to play. They The infinitive can take on an object. For example: He likes to infinitive; book = object).

want to play. want to play. want to play. read book. (To read =

Other usage of verbs to remember 1. When and is used to join two nouns or pronouns together, the verb is usually in the plural. Examples: Beef and mutton are meat. He and I were classmates. 2. When we use two nouns for the same person or thing, the verb should be in the singular. Examples: My friend and classmate is very helpful. Bread and butter is his only food. 3. When we use two nouns for the same person, we use the article the only once and the verb should be in the singular. Example: The shopkeeper and owner of the shop is my uncle. 4. When we refer to two different persons, we use the article twice and the verb must be in the plural. Example: The shopkeeper and the owner of the shop are my good friends. 5. When we join two nouns and treat them as a whole, the verb is in the singular. Example: Bread and butter is his usual breakfast. 6. When a noun is a quantity or an amount, it is treated as a whole and the verb is in the singular. Examples: Ten kilometers is not a long way to travel. Nowadays, fifty dollars is not a lot of money.

A verb is used in different forms as follow: Simple Present Tense eat

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Simple Past Tense Present Particle Past Particle Future Tense THE PRESENT TENSE 1. The Present Simple

ate is eating has eaten will eat

Used for a habitual or repeated action, that is, for something that we do always, every day, often, usually, etc. Example: He plays football on Sundays.

Used for a general truth or a fact, that is, for something that is true. Example: Night follows day.

Used for something or an action happening now. Example: See how she walks.

Used instead of the future tense. Example: He arrives tomorrow.

Used instead of the past tense, to make something look more real. Example: The tiger comes; it catches the boy.

Used instead of the present perfect tense. Example: We hear that the king is dead.

Used to introduce a quotation, that is, to repeat words spoken or written by someone else. Example: Shakespeare says: Neither a borrower nor a lender be.

2. The Present Continuous Tense

Used to show that something is still happening, that is, an action is still going on at the time of speaking. It shows that the action is not yet complete.

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He is writing a letter. Example: Used instead of the future tense. We usually say the time when this future action will take place He is going to Japan next week. Example:

Used to use the phrase is going which means about to. It is going to rain.

Example:

Used to show an action which happens many times. We often use always with this expression. He is always getting into trouble.

Example: 3. The Present Perfect Tense

Used to show an action which has just been completed or a past action when the time is not mentioned. The action may be a recent one or it may be one which happened a long time ago. I have finished reading the book. There have been many changes in this country.

Example:

Used for an action that has been going on from the past until now, that is, something that happened in the past but is going on still. I have lived here for ten years.

Example: Used often with just, already, recently, never, yet and (in questions) with ever. I have already told them about the plan She has never replied to my letter. Have you ever been to London?

Example:

Used often to answer questions which contain a verb in the Present Perfect tense. Where have you been? I have been to London to see the Queen. What have you lost? I have lost all my money.

Example:

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4. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Used for an action just completed or continued up to now. He has been talking for an hour.

Example:

THE PAST TENSE 1. The Past Simple Tense

Used to describe a completed past action when the time of the action is mentioned. I went to the cinema yesterday.

Example: Used to show for a past action that was completely done in the past. My mother made a cake and we all ate it. Example:

Used to express a habitual past action. He always came home late.

Example: 2. The Past Continuous Tense Used for an action that was going on in the past when something else happened. While they were watching television, the light went out. Example: Used to show an action that was going on at a certain time in the past. I was eating my dinner at 7 oclock last night. Example:

Used for two actions that were going on at the same time in the past. While his father was reading the newspaper, his mother was

Example:

cooking.

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3. The Past Perfect Tense Used for an action that was completed before another action took place. I had left the house before he arrived. Example:

Used in the Indirect or Reported Speech. I have read the book. He said that he had read the book.

Example: 4. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Used for an action that had been going on in the past before another action occurred in the past. She had been cooking when we visited her.

Example:

THE FUTURE TENSE The Future Tense is used to show some action or happening in the future. Future Simple + Going To 1. Simple Future Tense is used to show future action or that something will happen in the future. Example: We will complete the work tomorrow.

2. Going to is used to express a future action that has been planned in advance. Example: We are going to Japan next week.

3. Future Continuous Tense is used to show continuous action at some future time. Example: I shall be seeing both of you tomorrow.

4. Future Perfect Tense is used for an action which will have finished by some future time or date which is mentioned or before another action has begun. Example: I shall have finished this job by seven oclock.

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I shall have finished this job by the time you arrive. 5. Future Perfect Continuous Tense. This continuous tense is formed with shall/will have been + a present particle. Example: I shall have been living in London for exactly ten years next Saturday.

CHAPTER IV ADJECTIVES

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An adjective is a word that tells us something about a noun, that is, about a person, an animal, a thing or a place. For example: She is a pretty girl. A giraffe has a long neck. The table is round. That is an old temple. There are various kinds of adjectives: 1. An adjective which tells us about the quality of the noun. For example: the blue sky, a big house, a square table, a cold morning. 2. An adjective which tells us about the quatity of the noun. For example: The zoo has many animals. The pen has not much ink left. 3. An adjective which tells us about the ownership of the noun. For example: That is my dog. Those are their bicycles. 4. An adjective which poses question in an interrogative manner. For example: Which school do you go to? Whose car is this? 5. An adjective which specifies a noun. For example: This boy is a member of the club. That girl is my sister. Adjectives which end in -ing, e.g. an interesting film, an amazing player, an annoying habit, Adjectives which end in -ed, e.g. the damaged goods, the escaped prisoners, improved version.

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Forming adjectives Adding y.Drop e. Add ful.* Change yAdd ous or ious.Add less. to i. anger care ease* doubt greed peace ice* beauty* oil pity* Add al. * Drop e. Add able. music accept nation comfort person enjoy nature* fashion agriculture* respect Adjectives can be formed from Nouns. Noun accident danger length star wind Adjectives can be formed from Verbs. Verb enjoy help obey play talk Adjective enjoyable helpful obedient playful talkative Adjective accidental dangerous long starry windy *Drop y. mountain danger industry mystery* glory* Add ic.*Drop y. acrobat artist photograph sympathy* robot aim end harm sense use Add ive. attract effect act instruct progress

Adjectives can be formed from Adjectives. Adjective comic correct elder red sick Comparison of adjectives We use the Positive degree to compare two equal nouns. For example: His house is as big as my house. Adjective comical corrective elderly reddish sickly

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 We use the Comparative degree to compare two unequal nouns. For example: His house is bigger than my house. We use the Superlative degree to compare three or more Nouns. For example: His house is the biggest in the neighbourhood. Positive bold deep near rich tall Positive careful enjoyable forgetful useful wonderful Positive bad good little Comparative bolder deeper nearer richer taller Comparative more careful more enjoyable more forgetful more useful more wonderful Comparative worse better less Superlative boldest deepest nearest richest tallest Superlative most careful most enjoyable most forgetful most useful most wonderful Superlative worst best least

CHAPTER V ADVERBS An adverb adds more to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. I called you last night. (called=verb; last night=adverb) Your dress is very beautiful. (beautiful=adjective; very=adverb) The rain stopped quite suddenly. (suddenly=adverb; quite=adverb) Types of Adverbs Adverb of Time This shows when an action or something is done or happens. It answers the question When? It is either placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. Example: I phoned you yesterday. / I saw her walking along the river last week.

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Adverb of Place This shows where an action or something is done or happens. It answers the question Where? It is placed after the verb. Example: I live here. / He fell down. Adverb of Manner This shows how an action or something is done. It answers the question How? It is usually placed just after the verb. Example: She sleeps soundly. / He drives quickly. Adverb of Degree or Quantity This answers the questions, To what degree? or How much? It is usually placed before the adjective and the adverb. Example: It is too dark for us to see anything. / Last night it rained very heavily.. Adverb of Frequency This answers the question How often? Example: He will never have finished in time. / We always go to school by bus. Affirmative Adverb (yes) and Adverb of negation (No) Example: yes, surely, certainly, indeed, by all means, no, not at all, by no means. Interrogative Adverb (Question) For example: When? Where? How? Why? How much/often? Relative Adverb: when, where, how, why These words are the same in form as Interrogative Adverbs; but they are not questions. Example: The time when he arrived. / The scene where the accident occurred. / He knows how to do it. / The reason why he left. Comparison of Adverbs Similar to the comparison of adjectives, adverbs have three degrees of comparison the Positive, the Comparative and the Superlative. Most adverbs which end in -ly form the Comparative with more and the Superlative with most. Positive comfortably happily kindly loudly noisily Comparative more comfortably more happily more kindly more loudly more noisily Superlative most comfortably most happily most kindly most loudly most noisily

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Forming Adverbs Adverbs can be formed from nouns, adjectives and verbs. Most adverbs end in -ly. Nouns beauty success Adjectives Verbs Adverbs beautifully successfully angrily foolishly continually knowingly

angry foolish continue know

CHAPTER VI INDIRECT SPEECH We can report what another person says in two ways: 1. By using the exact words of the speaker. Example: He said to me, Be careful! This is the Direct Speech. We repeat the exact words used by the speaker and keep the exact words within quotation marks. 2. By using our own words to repeat what the speaker said. Example: Direct: He said to me, Be careful! Indirect: He told me to be careful. This is the Indirect or Reported Speech. Notice that the past tense is used when the main verb said is in the past tense. Here we do not use the quotation marks. We use an infinitive and we repeat the pronoun. When we change Direct Speech into Indirect Speech, it is sometimes necessary to: Change all Present and Future Tenses in the Direct Speech into the Past Tenses in the Indirect Speech when the main verb said is in the Past Tense. Example Direct: Write carefully! he said to me.

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Indirect: He told me to write carefully. Change a pronoun or a possessive adjective, and the tense of the verb to Past Tense. Example Direct: Dont drive so fast when you pass my school, he said to me. Indirect: He asked me not to drive so fast when I passed his school. Use more than one speech verb if the Direct Speech contains more than one sentence. Example Direct: Dont quarrel with your sister, my mother said. Get on with your school homework. Indirect: My mother told me not to quarrel with my sister. She told/asked me to get on with my school homework. In most cases, we do not change the tense of the verbs in Direct Speech when: The reporting verb is in the Simple Present tense (he says), the Present Perfect tense (she has told us) or the Simple Future tense (I will tell him). Examples: Direct: Im tired, he says every evening. They are late, she has already told us. Indirect: Every evening he says (that) he is tired. She has already told us (that) they are late. I will tell him, The shop is shut. I will tell him (that) the shop is shut.

We do not change the tense of verbs in Direct Speech if they make a statement which is always true or if the action is still continuing and a change of tense would give the wrong meaning.

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Examples: Direct: He told us, The world is round. My brother is living in Australia. Indirect: He told us that the world is round. She said that her brother is living in Australia.

The following changes are also made: 1. shall to should can to could 2. will to would has to had may to might

Pronouns and Possessive AdjectivesThe pronoun is changed in person from first and second to third. I becomes her or them he or she We becomes they You becomes he, him,

3.

Adjectives and Adverbs: We change: this these now today last night tomorrow here yesterday thus to to to to to to to to to that those then that day on the previous night or the night before the next day or the day after there the previous day or the day before so; (in) that way

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CHAPTER VII THE ARTICLES Definite Article The Indefinite Article A or An A is used:

Before a word which begins with a consonant. Example: a woman Before a singular, countable noun. Example: a banana When we mention something for the first time. Example: I saw a dog. Before a word with a long sound of u. Example: a university, a uniform, a useful book, a European, etc. Before the word one. Example: a one-way street, a one-eyed man, a oneyear course, a one-day holiday, etc.

An is used:

Before a noun which begins with a vowel. Example: an apple. Before a word which begins with a vowel sound or a silent h. Example: an hour, an honest man, an heir, an honour, an honourable man, etc Before a singular, countable noun which begins with a vowel or silent h. Example: an orange

The is used:

When the same thing or person mentioned again, that is, a particular thing or person. Example: I bought an orange. The orange is sweet.. When there is only one such thing. Example: the earth, the sun, the moon. Before the names of famous buildings, etc. Example: The Eiffel Tower, The Great Wall of China.

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When a singular noun is used to point out a whole class, race, group, etc. Example: The bear is a strong animal. Before the special names of a rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges, groups of islands, certain organizations, political parties, and countries such as the U.S.A., the U.K., the U.S.S.R. and the U.A.R., The Nile, The Dead Sea, The Pacific Ocean, The Himalayas, The United Nations, The Republican Party, etc.

Before the names of holy or important books. Example: The Koran, The Bible. Before an adjective when the noun is understood. Example: The poor need help.

Articles are not used:

Before the name of a person: Example: I am a fan of Michael Jackson. (not A or The Michael Jackson) Before the name of a place, town, country, street, or road. Example: Barcelona is a beautiful city. (not A or The Barcelona) Before names of materials. Example: Gold is found in Australia. (not A or The gold) Before abstract nouns used in a general sense. Example: We love all beauty. (not a beauty or the beauty)

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CHAPTER VIII PRONOUNS A Pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. It refers to a person or thing without giving the name. There are two types of Personal Pronouns: (1) those used as subjects; and (2) those used as objects. Personal Pronouns Singular Object Me You Him Her It Plural Object Us You Them Them Them

First Person Second Person Third Person

Subject I You He She It

Subject We You They They They

Reflexive Pronouns We use the Reflexive Pronoun when the action of the doer goes back to himself so that the Subject of the sentence is the same person as the object. Example: He has hurt himself. Pronouns like himself' are called Reflexive Pronouns. They always end in self '.

Reflexive Pronouns First Person Second Person Third Person

Singular Myself Yourself Himself Herself

Plural Ourselves Yourselves Themselves Themselves

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Itself

Themselves

Relative Pronouns The Relative Pronouns take the place of Nouns or Pronouns; and they are used to join two sentences about the same person or thing. Examples of relative pronouns: who, which, that, whom and whose. In most cases, we use who, whose and whom to make statements about people.

We use who to join two sentences.

Example: "The man is an artist. He drew that picture." "The man is an artist who drew that picture."

We use whose to show possession or relationship.

Example: "That is my uncle whose son is my cousin."

We use which or that in almost the same way as we use who but it refers to things, not human beings. There is one other difference in the way we use who and which. After who we put a verb. After which we can put a verb, a pronoun or a noun.

Example: That is the camera which costs fifty dollars. That is the camera which he bought. That is the camera which John likes.

We use whom to make a statement about human beings. It is used in place of who (a) when it is the object of a verb or (b) when it comes after a preposition.

Example: (a) The man whom they caught was sent to prison. (b) The man to whom you should speak is my uncle.

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CHAPTER IX PREPOSITIONS Prepositions are words placed before Nouns and Pronouns. They are used to show time, position and direction. Examples of Prepositions showing time: My birthday falls in September. Most shops are closed on Sunday. I have an appointment at 9 o'clock. Examples of Prepositions showing position: He is standing at the door. The glass is on the table. The cat is sleeping under the chair. Examples of Prepositions showing direction: She got into the taxi. The girl is walking towards her mother. I have to go to town. Other examples of expressions using prepositions: The picture was drawn by his brother. She likes to go out with her friends. They say I walk like my father. Her parents give her a box of sweets.

Expressions using Prepositions: good at clever at bad at point at get up wake up look up clean up fall off get off set off break off interested in involved in send in work in

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stare at fight against speak against vote against hit against lean against

add up get into cash into jump into turn into dive into

finish off turn on switch on get on carry on put it on

fill in made of built of a box of half of many of

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CHAPTER X CONJUNCTIONS Conjunctions are words that connect words, sentences, phrases, or clauses. Examples of conjunction are: 'and', 'but', 'or', 'while', 'because', 'since', 'unless', 'although', and many more. Conjunctions joining words: Example: I have a car and a house. Conjunctions joining phrases: Example: The fisherman is happy walking along the beach and carrying a bucket full of fish. Conjunctions joining sentences: He walked to his car. He got into it.. He walked to his car and got into it. Will you have tea? Will you have coffee? Will you have tea or coffee? She is tired. She cannot sleep. She is tired but she cannot sleep. Conjunctions can join nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Example: I have a pen and a book. (Joining two nouns) He joked and we laughed. (Joining two verbs) She is beautiful and tall. (Joining two adjectives) He eats quickly and noisily. (Joining two adverbs)

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CHAPTER XI POSSESSION

There are three kinds of Possession: Possessive Nouns, Possessive Adjectives and Possessive Pronouns.

Possessive Nouns Nouns that show possession are called Possessive Nouns. Possessive Nouns are formed:

By adding an apostrophe (s) to singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s; Example: my father's car; the children's toys

2. By adding an apostrophe () to plural nouns ending in s; Example: the boys' bicycles 3. By using of the' with names of non-living things. Example: the roof of the house.

Possessive Adjectives Adjectives that show possession are called Possessive Adjectives. Adjectives such as my' and his' are used before nouns such as school' and bicycle' to show possession. Such adjectives are examples of Possessive Adjectives. Example: This is my school' and That is his bicycle'. Possessive Adjectives First Person Second Person Third Person Singular my your his her its Plural our your their their their

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Possessive Pronouns

Pronouns that show possession are called Possessive Pronouns. Words like mine' and yours' are pronouns and as they show possession, they are known as Possessive Pronouns. Example: This is my car. It is mine' and That is your van. It is yours'. Possessive Pronouns First Person Second Person Third Person Singular Mine Yours His Hers Its Plural Ours Yours Theirs Theirs Theirs

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CHAPTER XII PUNCTUATION MARKS A full stop or period ( . ) is used: to mark the end of a sentence.

Example: There are two sides to every question. to show the shortened form of a word

Example: exam at the end of an abbreviation.

Example: Dr.

Comma ( , ) is used: to separate words in a list. to show a pause in a sentence or reading. before inverted commas of actual words spoken.

Example: We saw monkeys, lions and tigers in the zoo. Example: Yesterday, as I was jogging, I saw a big snake. Example: He told us, The world is round. to separate the name of the person spoken to.

Example: John, lets start work straightaway. to separate parts of an address.

Example: 99, Downing Street, Kingston. to separate relative clause from the rest of the sentence.

Example: The man, who lives next door, is a doctor.

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Question Mark ( ? ) is used at the end of a sentence to show a question. Example: When will the train arrive? Exclamation Mark ( ! ) is used at the end of a sentence to show surprise, excited, or angry. Example: We won! Quiet! Colon ( : ) is used to introduce an example, quotation, etc. Example: This box contains the following items: bandages,plasters, lotion, medicines and a pair of scissors. Semicolon ( ; ) is used to join two sentences or two complete parts of a sentence which are closely connected in meaning. Example: He gives up smoking; obviously, he fears smoking-related disease may strike him. Apostrophe ( ) is used: to show that numbers or letters have been left out.

Example: 86 (=1986); dont (=do not). to show that something belongs to someone or something.

Example: Johns mother; Charles book to the plural of letters and numbers.

Example: Your cs / 5s are too big. Hyphen ( - ) is used to join two words or more to form compound words. Example: good-looking, pro-American, forty-one, mother-in-law. Quotation Marks ( ) are used: to show the beginning and end of reported speech.

Example: Turn on the light she said to me.

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to show a quoted word, phrase or title. CHAPTER XIII SOME and ANY

Example: War and Peace is a novel by Leo Tolstoy.

1. We use some in a positive statement and any in a negative statement or a question. 2. We use both some and any with countable or uncountable nouns. 3. We use some in a question if it is an invitation or a request. 4. We join some and any with one, body or thing to form positive sentences and negative sentences respectively. Examples: 1. I have a sister. / I dont have a sister. / Do you have any sister? 2. He bought some oranges. / He spent some time looking for his lost wallet. / There arent any eggs on sale here. / There isnt any tea in the kettle. 3. Would you like to drink some milk? Can you do something for me? 4. Someone has taken my book. / Anyone could have taken it./ Theres somebody waiting to see you. / Has anybody seen the film? / I want something to eat. / Would you like anything else to eat?

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CHAPTER XIV USED TO

1. USED TO AS A VERB

We can use the expression used to when we wish to refer to a past habit which has now stopped. Example: I used to go to that shop but now I dont go there anymore. The usual question form and possible answers with used to are: question: Did you use to see them very often? answers: Yes, I used to. / No, I didnt use to. / No, I never used to. Remember that use and not used is used after did and didnt. 2. USED TO AS AN ADJECTIVE

We can show that somebody is accustomed to something by using used to as an adjective. It is often followed by a gerund but it can be followed by a noun or possessive. Example: I am used to living in a warm climate. (followed by a gerund) They are used to this weather. (followed by a noun) He seems used to your brothers jokes. (followed by possessive adjective)

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