Rituals of Resistance: A Critique of the Theory of Everyday Forms of Resistance Author(s): Matthew C.

Gutmann Source: Latin American Perspectives, Vol. 20, No. 2, Rethinking Theory and Practice As Class Conflict Continues (Spring, 1993), pp. 74-92 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2633594 . Accessed: 03/03/2011 12:42
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RitualsofResistance A Critique theTheory of of Everyday Forms Resistance' of

by Matthew Gutmann C. In the context new worldorders of threatening above and new from out popular struggles breaking from below, description analysis mass and of protest LatinAmericais confronted the need forcomprehensive in with of To for theories social conflict. account thesedevelopments amongthe subaltern to classes, LatinAmericanists increasingly are turning theviewsof of I James Scott C. regarding "everyday forms resistance."hopetoshowthat of important aspects hismodel hinder efforts understand develop our to and in theories conflict LatinAmerica. of Gilbert calls Scott's"themostvisibleandpolished statement of Joseph in a vital what nowconstitutes current peasant studies" goesontosuggest and of of forms peasant resistance' contribute can thathis "analysis 'everyday of valuable to American insights a broader conceptualizationLatin banditry" a of forms protest of introducessurvey thevaried (1990: 26). SusanEckstein of in LatinAmerica citing forms peasant resistance and by Scotton hidden these forms "other to subordinate extending economically groups" (1989: 8). that Scott and She saysthat "correctly insightfully argues peasants frequently forms resistance," of she engagein everyday although quicklyadds that of resultin majorchange"and also "such quiet forms defiance rarely and forms resistance of discusses"moredirect explicit" (1989: 8). Levine in statement" the call books"a major recent andMainwaring one ofScott's of on classes(1989: 203 n. 1). tradition studies popular in of and attention studies LatinAmerica thus is Widespread growing to work alsoTutino, being given Scott's (see 1986;Colburn, 1989b;Jimenez, 1989; Edelman,1990; Foweraker, 1990; Gould,1990; Orlove,1991; and, and morecritically, Roseberry, 1989;Cook andBinford, 1990).In Joseph's writers on to thisis ironic, becauseboththese Eckstein's cases,at least, go
at of in a student theDepartment AnthropologytheUniversity Matthew Gutmann,graduate C. at research theColegiode Mexicoin Mexico a is Berkeley, spending yeardoing of California, City. 20 1993, Issue PERSPECI`IVES, 77,Vol. No.2,Spring 74-92 AMERICAN LATIN American Latin Perspectives C 1993 74

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theory: first being, the half refute what shallcall thesecond I halfofScott's covert unorganized and forms of roughly, we must that learnto appreciate of resistance; secondthatthesehave becomethe only viable forms the in today therefore and resistance theexploited oppressed theworld for and focusof scholarly attention. themostreasonable LatinAmericanists could to worldevents-a recognition be lulled intosuch a response recent by havechanged forever. Fortunately, popular "rational intellectuals" times that in will conceit. struggles theregion notallowus this that doesnot overt but discount resistance merely Itmight argued Scott be In to resistance morefrequent. fact, is calls attention thefactthatcovert and he opposethetwoforms. Further, however, does frequently explicitly of of forms struggle to may although simply notethepreponderance covert it serves trivialize to at havebeena novelinsight one time, today toooften of noted Scottaresimilar The forms resistance by socialconflict. everyday of calls "rituals rebellion," the to whatMax Gluckman though twowriters showsthatthe symbolic conclusions. Gluckman come to quite different he werebased on an "accepwhich examined rebellions against authority of established order right good,andevensacred" as and tance the (1960: 127) and and represented helpedto achievethepractical acquiescenceof the subservient the social order. to Scott'speasantsseem to have politically as of a inheritedsimilar underlying acceptance society itis-its inevitability does not disputethe with if not its justice.But identification authority than the do rituals rebellion of which interested of structurespower more any seektounderstand valorize and should Gluckman. LatinAmericanists sponof of manifestations but taneousforms resistance, we mustnotoverlook as on the organized resistance, among proletariat wellas thepeasantry, the or they inimical the are to ground either they that havebeenoverstudied that of primary concerns these classes. SCOTT'S THEORY OF RESISTANCE in his of Scotthas developed theory resistance three books:TheMoral and in (1976), Economy the of Peasant:Rebellion Subsistence SoutheastAsia FormsofPeasantResistance (1985), and Weapons theWeak:Everyday of HiddenTranscripts and Arts Resistance: Domination the (1990). of rebellion with he and unrest In Moral Economy, soughtto contrast forms struggle. tideofnational of The liberation to alternatives suchpopular and in Asia was clearly movements Southeast subsiding, he was concerned rebellion was forms overt covert and future of with (resistance not predicting In he for the research, was yeta keyword him)among Malaypeasantry. this

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Thompson's "MoralEconomyof theEnglishCrowd" directly following of (1959), Genovese(1976),Davis (1971), as well as thework Hobsbawm his he (1975), and others(though distinguished positionfromthatof Scott,1985]). Hobsbawmand Genovese[see Scott,1989: 21, following "These order, wrote, he populardefianceof the established Regarding form symof and may counterpoints becomean institutionalized harmless like order. Or strengthens existing the buffoon, bolicprotest which, theroyal movements or focusof religious political they maybecomethenormative existence is notable, that for an It with insurrectionary potential. is nottheir Rebellion and (1976: 233). As its subtitle, theyare well nighuniversal" MoralEconomy basedon theois in Asia,indicates, Subsistence Southeast area in geographic cultural and to with regard a limited retical conclusions and represents more nuancedapproachto a whichScott has expertise phenomena. with and in expressions interrelations other resistance itsvarious in rebellion times crisis the other it overt of like things, helpsexplain Among of Depression the1930s. both extends argument his to Scott with of Weapons theWeak, Beginning in throughout worldand history generaland the includethe peasantry and of of the seeks to diminish significance study overtforms explicitly He "It to resistance. writes: occurred me thatthe emphasison peasant far it to importantunderstand was Instead, seemed more rebellion misplaced. of forms peasant resistance-the call prosaicbut whatwe might everyday whoseektoextract the and between peasantry those labor, constant struggle Most of theforms struggle this and from them. food,taxes,rents, interest HereI haveinmind defiance. the of takesstopwellshort collective outright foot of dissimuladragging, powerless groups: weapons relatively ordinary falsecompliance, arson, sabotage, slander, feigned ignorance, pilfering, tion, as insists greater that attention paid be andso forth" (1985: 29). Insofar Scott That "the therecan be littledisagreement. to the "hiddentranscripts," is was matter: "Therare, rebellion misplaced" another on emphasis peasant or of Brown simply are and gestures a NatTurner a John heroic, foredoomed slavesandtheir the between owners. One nottheplacestolookfor struggle overwork, at conflict look rather theconstant, food,autonmust grinding of forms resistance" ritual-ateveryday added). (1985: xvi,emphasis omy, of of forms resistance to our Farfrom needing narrow understandingwhich and overt covert and forms the both we to areworthwhile study, must study them.2 relations between scholars in As Scottstresses all his worksince Weapons theWeak, of of and forms covert overt must this following framework choosebetween to dedicated to edited volume In subaltern politics. hisintroductiona recent Scott'stheories, Colburn added) writes: (1989a: ix, emphasis developing

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it Instead, is are rebellions fewandfarbetween. peasant that "Scottargues what to [for moreenlightening whom?] understand can be calledeveryday of resistance." forms peasant historical even many, may in certain, of forms struggle That covert forms shouldno overt notmeanthat does be circumstances morefrequent it hereis wrong; is nota question Besides,theemphasis be longer studied. todayand at rather, leastin LatinAmerica in or of overt covert isolation; themselves and alternate, transform occurtogether, historically, forms these taking pessimism, ideological widespread Giventhecurrent intoeachother. resistance rebellion and overt woulddrown dualism literally thisdangerous despair. in intellectual that Scottstates "theidea for of of At thebeginning Weapons theWeak, in dissatisfacand originated a growing its this study, concerns itsmethods, work-my own as well as thatof others-on the tionwithmuchrecent as and (1985: 28). It is meant a subjectof peasantrebellions revolution" liberawarsof national with romance to academic counterpoint "left-wing from or "dissident intellectuals themiddle upper tion" (1985: 28), answering on of exclusively havetheluxury focusing classes [who]mayoccasionally he structural for change"(1985: 247). Elsewhere theprospects long-term with but themselves rather is the "My quarrel notwith distinctions writes, to and historical to priority weight theorganized greater thetendency assign a resistance, positionthat,in my view, and politicalthanto everyday and struggle basisofeconomic political misconstrues very the fundamentally represclasses-not justthepeasantry-in conducted dailybysubordinate on revolucitedfocus peasant sivesettings" (1987: 450). Mostoftheworks the War, during Vietnam 1969) andappeared tion(e.g.,Moore,1966;Wolf, and attention in and of socialtumult general widespread deserved a time great in liberation particular. to warsofnational in precisely a Scott'sstarhas beenrising no that It is perhaps accident States.This is a time within United the conservatism periodof retrenched scholars seemstomany socialorders of when permanence atleastcertain the is it than didin the1960s.Scott's"reality" no less a social more"realistic" in It he than thosewhich criticizes. is mucheasierforscholars the product in revolution the20th century to States peasant-backed United today dismiss "it in for as "at thevery best,a mixedblessing thepeasantry" that almost 1985: state and coercive hegemonic apparatus" (Scott, a creates more always the romanticizes peasant past(1989: 56). that remarks Scott 29). Roseberry the the that Scott only with feeling for this why To extend insight, is oneleft 200 years ago? are worth cherishing thosewhichoccurred revolutions that does require we of vision historical of progress not Rejection a unilineal

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in popularrevolutions the through historical developments denypositive present epoch.3 as from whathe perceives Malay peasants'"pragmatic Extrapolating that lives,Scottgeneralizes to therealities" 246) oftheir (1985: adaptation for is "surely subordinate classeshistorically"onewhich "thesituation most (1985: 247).4Thus,in wouldtransgress" that setslimits onlythefoolhardy model romanticized he what viewsas anoverly hisattempt getawayfrom to an Scott his behind equally deterministic ofpopular resistance, throws weight to quo-in thenameofthe and resignation thestatus economism pragmatic an of It that framework oppressed, course. is notsurprising using ahistorical events of Yet off one leadstowriting what is incapable explaining. marvelous overt does do and rebellions occur, resistance become remain be explained: to livesfor these goals in andaimforstructural Peoplestillgivetheir change. every day.5 LatinAmerica his of and the that is a study "localclassrelations" that state, Scottnotes or movements protest, so on,"areconspicuously and conflict, religious ethnic on" (1985: xix). We cannot, absent impinge theserelations exceptas they socialstructuralist describlines, alongnarrowly however, far arguing get by from their class neatly for as ing theideas of peasants, example, arising are Scott'sideas about(class) consciousness sociallyconstructed position. in that (andsubordirooted a reductionism wouldhavepeasants paradigms in because at and nate classesgenerally) alltimes placesresisting likefashion of This structural inferiority. is reminiscent and they recognize accepttheir to order: "The status and Weber'srational quo tends be 'rational,' radical to 1968:270). Thisessentializing approach (Worsley, changenon-rational" The of materialism. notion that thepeasantry ultimately form vulgar is a determines socialconsciousness overlooks class position imporeconomic onesandsetsupa dualism which in life other economic than tant experiences of instead existing and ideas are determined "outside" material factors by in relation with them. changing complex "One does notexpectDas Kapitalto come from pubs, working-class of one quiteclose to thelabortheory value!" although maygetsomething Scottwrites "something quiteclose to therefore, (1985: 330). Supposedly, at of thelabortheory value"couldhave beenarrived farmoreeasilyhad to someonein the1.9th transcripts only century known look forthehidden ofthepowerless-their songs, gestures, jokes,and gossip, folktales, rumors, in It showtheinherent problems the theater.6is passagessuchas thiswhich overtand covert. Peasantunderstanding between supposedly dichotomy the beneath fairly "no so that one wholooksevenslightly extends far placid it wouldfind easyto in of official surface class relations Sedaka [Malaysia] their situation" about that (1985: 304). To mystified argue thepooraremuch

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that Scottimplies challenge thissocial order, to explaintheir lack of overt For on to peasants too smart riskthemselves a losingproposition. this are the arguing it "ignores that of reason, disallowstheconcept hegemony, he daily mostsubordinate classesareable,on thebasisoftheir extent which to ideology" the to and material experience, penetrate demystify prevailing of by as (1985: 317). Thisis a description society ifitwerepopulated neat cultural isolates. of Scott compareswhathas come to be knownas the "myth male he to wouldstyle myth thesubordination the of dominance" what apparently in Just real societies mayexercise ifnot of thepeasantry. as women certain formal power,"in muchthe same fashionone mightcontendthatthe it often finds bothtactically convenient well as necessary as to peasantry endsthat its to intact while directing attention political leavethe formal order be formal (1990: 52; see also 1985: 33 n. recognition" maynever accorded a modelfrom anthropological on discourse gender, the 11).In appropriating in peasant The argument that many is however, Scotthas missedthepoint. has neither mannorthewoman more the and male societies power therefore than (see Rogers, is Scott does not domination more 1975).Surely myth fact lowerclassesandelites, thisis but this meanto arguethat is thecase with his lead. where logicmight of . WhenScottcalls "folkdescriptions whatis happening . . adequate in than far academic meaning anything and,atthesametime, richer emotive couldpossibly (1985: 182), he is doingmore provide" political-economy and know-it-all intellectucommonsense than peasants chastising glorifying als. To be a peasant(or proletarian) means,to Scott,to have "adequate" thanthat which in no context of descriptions life,forhe is allowing other must or domination be hidden itwillbe crushed. action against his Scott extends theory With Domination theArts Resistance, and (now of rural and urban, to called "infrapolitics") applyto all subordinate groups, ownname"(1990: 19; see also Scott, 1989).In who"darenotspeakintheir of the broadly against criticizing essentialism thisworkI am notarguing of commonalities the studies denying importance discerning or comparative I the or social categories throughout world. am sugamongpeasants other sharedcharacteristics discovered that gesting, however, claimsto having the to scrutinized see howthey be handle, especially, matter must carefully context. and ofcultural historical action a crowd of 'The political by Scottwrites: advantages impromptu and without form and conceala deeper more important ofdisguise anonymity whichsuch actionwouldnotbe possible"(1990: 151). If thismeansthat actionis and without impromptu anonymity, disorganization spontaneity, instead action to If but it impossible, maybe true, itis a tautology. itrefers

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ingeneral, is a different this matter, implying all-knowing all-powerful the and lurks state that beneath surface so much Scott's the in of recent work. Despitedisclaimers 1985:xvi),Scott gradual, (see pits incremental, and all buthidden changeagainst self-consciously directed radicalchange: and . "Petty acts of resistance . . [have]thuschanged narrowed policy or the It options availabletothestate. is inthis fashion, notthrough and revolts, let thatthepeasantry classicallymade its has alone legal politicalpressure, felt"(1985: 35-36,emphasis political presence added).In developing his ofresistance notmerely mostcommon forms are the that but theory covert of Scottsaysthat"persistent also themostefficacious, practice everyday ofresistance of underwrittena subculture complicity achieve can forms by ifnotall,oftheresults aimedat bysocialmovements" many, (1987: 422). on He also metaphorically reefs speaksof themicroscopic growth barrier which"the ship of state[eventually] runsaground" against (1989: 20). that of Colbum(1989a: x) picksup on thistheme, forms stating everyday for resistance socialchange peasant may"lay thegroundwork" substantial If acts resistance add byeroding awayanunpopular regime. all these ofpetty where thehistorical are successes? up to so much, valve"theory Gluckman of Scottalso criticizes what callsthe"safety he are whichcertain acts of resistance and others (1990: 177ff.)-through "allowed" by statesin orderto defusemoreformidable opposition-as of resistance social change. to the underestimating importance everyday in of intellectuals the 1990sdictate one's Does therealism rational setting and socialchange? acknowledge locatesuch To sights onlyon microscopic is to it of subterranean subversion one thing; privilege as theheight "prag"thatis maticresignation" (1985: 325) in the face of a social system there" inescapably (1985: 324) is another. Thequestion is that forms protest be acknowlof must ultimatelynot these the of edgedas suchbutwhether accomplishmentspeasants-andthepoor in lives are essentially that all and oppressed general-in their day-to-day we the that can they realistically achieve.Norshould overlook fact particiin forms resistance of often more room maneuver to for pants overt provide thosesimilarly inclined morehesitant Foweraker, but 1990: 10).7 Ac(see "'Bread-and-butter' issuesare theessenceof lower-class to cording Scott, and wouldthelower politics resistance" (1985: 296). Why classes,oratleast their breadand therational ones,eversensibly atrisk put highest concerns, butter? into that class and class analysis It maybe argued Scotthas smuggled havelongtalked historians economists and science.Yetbourgeois political Scott'saudiout aboutclass,as Marxpointed (1969 [1852]: 528). Further, Colburn ence extendsfarbeyondthe ranksof politicalscience today.8

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inquires "Thisvolume thesis: to an bookdedicated Scott's introduces entire defend themselves in therural stillthemajority theworld, poor, intohow as of Politics, classlessformulation used a the against predations politics." far havewe comefrom How for as here, presented theproblem peasants. is in of instead "policlassless"backwardness" modernization theory, which lead Does notthis understanding tothe as tics"was identified theproblem? classesin general) that after peasants (and popular all, conclusion perhaps, in except withinmillennial a of their stand little chance changing situation life frame? time runsroughshod is over therefore, one that Scottwrites, "My analysis, in wouldconsider and conditions others that essential, differences specific of and to the approach" callsonothers ground order sketch outlines a broad to and in that specific "thesebroadassertions contexts [are]bothculturally deep"(1990: 22). I takehimat hiswordandwilluse examples historically theories. to his LatinAmerica disprove broadcomparative from SCOTT IN LATIN AMERICA LatinAmerican from Scottreflect does thefollowing How accurately the of may "Infrapolitics be thought as theelementary-in senseof reality? of and of foundational-form politics.... Undertheconditions tyranny life"(1990: in most historical subjects live,itis political persecution which in in has worked societies which repression crushing 201). Scott apparently Not all is protest notjust a greatriskbut inevitable. againstorganized that the and suffer sameconditions, evenin others do theconsesocieties In as as quencesarenotnecessarily uniform he wouldhaveus believe. Latin of well-known theviolence itsmilitary for dictatorships certainly America, of by the (and democracies!), last tenyearshave been marked a variety and struggles (for Mexico, see Ramirez Saiiz, 1986; popular protests LatinAmerica general, in and Monsivaiis, 1987;Foweraker Craig,1990;for and 1989; Mainwaring see Slater,1985; Nash and Safa, 1986; Eckstein, an of forms organization of indicate awareness certainly Wilde,1989).Their also reflect determia of eliteclasses,butthey therisks organizing against rather simply cope. than to nation organize transform to and on Asia specialists havewritten Southeast inordinately peasant Perhaps where LatinAmerica, and but rebellions revolution, thisis notthecase for on have of studies eliteson theone handand timeless peasants theother rather than and social control and "order academicdiscourse dominated and 1989:3) havebeenthefocus (Eckstein, mobilization, defiance, protest" in is that Nor concern. is theproblem generalizing itself of mostscholarly

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LatinAmerican bring longago helped Wolf to inappropriateLatinAmerica. emphasizstudies, community of out ethnographies ofthedoldrums isolated whichthe within framework the ing in particular colonialand historical Jayawardena (1957, 1969, 1971). As Chandra regionmustbe understood closedand... thelocal commuare partially societies only "peasant writes, that of (or of nity thepeasantis onlyone system setof systems) relations whatis (1968: 438). Taussig(1980) showsclearly his govern behaviour" among relations production to and common whatis particular commodity and minersin Colombia and workers plantation certaincontemporary Bolivia. comwith Smith (1990: 35), disagreeing ThedaSkocpol(1979) on what had the the "until 1980s, state little that writes to pelsweakstates modernize, He Skocpol'sposirural population." summarizes poweroverGuatemala's their powers infrastructural inorder as modernize develop "to states tion that and states" goesontoargue developed not overbyalready that they be taken in has the at that, least in LatinAmerica, military been instrumental the have arisen these apparatuses of development statesand,further, military out than rather tocarry struggles "in localpopulations to mainly order control at ofpopular struggles, least An arena." underestimation intheinternational of contributes misunderstandings to to certainly with regard LatinAmerica, and thestate itsdevelopment. of has forms struggle beentheconcern hidden and Describing analyzing the Nash of ofa smallnumber LatinAmericanists. (1979, 1989),discussing beliefsdo not showsthattheir amongBolivianminers, ch'alla offering As does their structural position. than their any predetermine behavior more as ritual use the periods, cultural will,inparticular she makesclear, miners a until historically of that "a rehearsal keepsalive thesentiment rebellion movements" it (1989: political [when] mayreinforce moment, appropriate in of links cessation suchrituals theMexicanvillageof the 202).9Friedrich sort: of of of Naranjawiththeemergence forms rebellion a quitedifferent and of forms competition mademany possible peaceful "Thecycleoffiestas that It of the involved emotions theNaranjenlos.seemslikely the profoundly 1920swasconnected after of expression theearly curtailmentsuchritualistic and of channeling interest passionintothepolitical withthesubsequent that (1977: 39). cametotypify Naranjaculture" and violence intrigue later Friedrich of the agencyin social conflict, To emiphasize centrality human calls as muchforthe of adds that"the reconstruction politicalhistory facts"' and (1977: 47). Thisis a of inference attitudes ideasas for'objective obWilliams's one Raymond critical agreeswith point, which particularly workof the of that servation "'m-uch the mostaccessibleand influential

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is historical: recovery discarded redress the of ideas,orthe counterhegemony and interpretations" 116). (1977: ofselective reductive of religion classconsciousness Nicaragua, and in Inhisdiscussion popular how"the of peopleever in erupts counterLancaster shows consciousness the in in against superaltern the hegemonic flashes, whisperings, murmurings at calls for classes" (1988: 200-201).Similarly, thesametimethat Joseph he he what calls"popular that knowledges," cautions "toacknowldecoding edge peasantsas theconscioussubjectsand,in a real sense,themakers one need not make inflatedclaims about the of theirown history, of classes (1990: 19). If thesubordinate 'sophistication' peasantpolitics" is inthe their and understand socialexistence there no mystification already of tolerance thestatus of of the quo form fatalism, primary explanation their it But mustbe military.10 even if thisweretrue, wouldnotexplainwhy or ever members thesubordinate of classes, individually collectively, know"The argument choosing that petty lives.As Mitchell notes, ingly their risk rather direct than confrontation result a rational is the of decision resistance of in not but depends onlyon an evaluation thesituation Sedaka [Malaysia] estimate where of interests (1990: 555). lie" historical on a general peasant in of original ethnography familiesin Ciudad V6lez-Ibaiiez, his highly of shows from perspective theoppressed the whom he Netzahualcoyotl, that, and suppression only indicated not preemptive studied, police response of on but actions thepart theauthorities also could"be lookedat as a useful had and the that for reaction, it signaled protest reached vibrated networks in of ofthepowerholders" summary the (1983: 242). Coatsworth, a recent in on social conflict Mexico,concludes that "the stateof scholarship rural in of (and in the historical significance ruralrebellion Mexicanhistory in remains of evolution other underestimated, though America) regions Latin in at less so nowthan anytime thepast"(1988: 62). CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE HISTORICAL RECORD forms of It is well and good to stirup thewaters regarding multiple and the of resistance perhaps But especially question class consciousness. a aboutfalseconsciousness Scottis in somerespects raising falseargument is the (see 1985: 314-318,1990: chap. 4). The dispute notover whether knowand abouttheir but "know"anything oppression what they oppressed commendbe that do notknow-a question mayandshould asked(as Scott as muchof his discussion of ablydoes) of intellectuals well. Throughout Scottis in reality duelingwiththeghostof Lenin.He is consciousness,

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of critiques Marxandlater to certainly thefirst raiseanarchist-inspired not have a pedigree such arguments or Lenin; indeed,in one form another have back With extending wellovera century. Leninthecriticisms centered of It leadership consciousness. is and on therelated questions revolutionary in which interests Scott particular. thelatter in on Is Especially What ToBe Done? (1973),Lenininsists thenecessity consciousas to he trade-union for classconsciousness, opposed what terms He to by from ness,to be brought theproletariat "outside" revolutionaries. starting point is the consciousness often spontaneous holdsthat trade-union no than of proletarians ultimately but represents deeperunderstanding a of and of whose recognition theexistence twoclasses,capitalist proletarian, Trade-union Leninwrites, consciousness, are opposed. interests thoroughly of of and enable will lead to the acceptance theinviolability capitalism than for terms thesale oftheir for to proletarians do no better bargain better into understanding about laborpowerunlessitis transformed revolutionary of In nature all aspectsof capitalism. contrast, Scott for theexploitative "is the consciousness not,as Leninclaimed, majorobstacleto trade-union the basisforit"(1985: 318). but revolution, rather onlyplausible in an best This argument, elucidated Weapons the Weak,requires of Instead of socialclass and social consciousness. between absolute identity this ironmechanical materialist a contradictory position process, analyzing ideas are thesole withtheidealistview that icallyhas muchin common of 1989: 17-29). determinantshuman activity Roseberry, (see in of abouta group urban proletarians theTepitoneighborhood Writing of Mexico City, Reyesand Rosas (1989) explainhowpeople in thisonce were vibrant Theyshowthat by community "co-opted" thestate. politically is hidden most these of to of socialstructuregenerally much theunderlying think the dismiss waysin which do Tepitenios people,butthey nottherefore the of enforce system specialfavors aboutthemselves-when actively they leaders-as mere"falseconsciousness." thesecorrupt Reyes and through of Rosas believe insteadthatthe self-image people in Tepitomustbe on as understood dependent thehistorical periodin whichit occurs,that with and becomeawareofthemselves through comparison others, Tepitenios with their of in at that this understandingandrelationship the time, way, this is state changing. as in Nivondescribes In a parallelstudy Tepito, neighborhood identity to conceiveof as in havingbeen fashioned opposition whattheresidents as and Socialist"identities. Theysee themselves the Gringo, "European, versus western," "the of"the standard-bearers national" meaning specifically this 1989:32). While Indian and themestizo notthe describing sense (Nivon, with Nivonnotesthemystical as of identity a processof relations others,

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say lives:"You might that to attribute their of that character residents Tepito the can ideology' comprehend that which argues no 'Western thesamepride to of thebarriowithrespect the peopleof Tepitohas reinforced isolation of and of thecity, sectarianism, thedevelopment ideologies the parts other arms of the to contribute reinforcing domination various themselves which overthebarrio" (Nivon,1989:41). ofthestate of maleBritish the Willis(1981) describes refusal white way, In a similar in schoolas theauthorities them to; expect to working-class youth compete own in makes themcomplicit their the veryact of consciousrebellion 1977: 101). In 1973: 134;Eckstein, (see eventual entrapment also Kearney, may to a refusal go along withauthority have contexts, rational specific form popular of resisanother describes Eckstein consequences. unintended the behind scenes,not violated tanceto thelaw: "The law is continually in thrives corruption. on For The in publicly thestreets. regime, particular, the stability" of defiance thelaw enhanced regime's decadessucheveryday servetoreinforce one's subordican (1989: 42). Thusresistance sometimes to disarticulato Warman refers as "thepolitical leading what nateposition, demands of of by tion"and"atomization" thepeasants thecanalization their in 1980:261). This areasofMexico(Warman, state through institutionsrural at his (1960) wasgetting with analysis Gluckman to point related the is intum the thatreinforce practicalacceptanceof power of ritualsof rebellion In Mintz them. partforthesereasons, disputing by relations symbolically how come to the to arguesthat"it is important understand populations of is a but felt that recognition their oppression notmerely matter poortimes, of the they question legitimacy an existing of evil times-when,in short, allocation" of rather theterms that than (1979: 191). of allocation power, of 1970sand "the America recessions themidnotes inLatin that Eckstein of then of policies certain thegovernments in early1980sandtherepressive some new typesof urbanmovements" (1989: 23). She powergenerated econosuch in writes that, countries as Chile,Mexico,andBrazil,"popular to ones. She elsesponsored mies"developedin opposition theofficially to such of of the where notes development "forms 'disobedience"' thestate after 1985 Mexico City the movement, especially as a grass-roots housing state that couldnotinfluence policy as earthquake, thepoorconcluded they common many that, possibility despite inanyway(1990: 238). Itis a distinct recessions in World economic of countries, system Third features theworld in the dislocations havenotmarked past15 years Malaysiaas andeconomic aboutpeasants, to It theyhave in Latin America. is difficult generalize and proletarians, protest. their "menandwomen describes projecting senseofsocial Velez-Ibanfiez of the by (1983: 240-241).He discusses autonomy defying power thestate"

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''womenwhohad braved cudgelsofpoliceand . .. menwhohad been the beaten, shot, abusedbyauthority" theroletheir and and experience played inthedevelopment a "cohort of identity" (1983:241). Thisis similar some in respects the"informal to socialgroup" discussed Willis(1981), though by thesocialeffects thetwoarecertainly thesame.Thesedifferences of not are in especially noteworthyVelez-Ibaniiez's description women'sgaining of "a their sense of politicalautonomy" through self-conscious confrontations with state the (1983: 243).1 for cannot account suchresistance his Scott because, despite chapters on he to humanagencyas capable of adaptation rather history, treats than for of newhistorical conditions. transformation Peasants, instance, supposthe becausethey havecometo recognize edlyrepresent hopeof thefuture is before rest usthat the of there nohopeinthe future! as Strathern makes But, it to human outside historclear, is impossible understand agency particular "The of doesnotsimply upthequestion ical frameworks: concept agency set or ofwhether interests themselves, thus for peoplecan know determine and willsarecrushed, orexpanded. demands It whether bent individual explicit to in will to howwill attention thecontexts which is relevant action, thus and as suchis defined" (1987: 23). from in Therecord LatinAmerica no waysubstantiates inference the that overt resistance rebellion, itexists all, is a dangerously if at and organized, the holdover from past.Eckstein, example, for out the romantic points that of "growing immiserization" thepoor is leadingto new forms social of the protest resistance and against Mexicangovernment (1990: 237). This contrasts the with realistically of deepening poverty rising expectations even In the most this of thepoorin Mexicofor century. a similar way, newwave in with the ofprotests contrasts therelative socialtranquilityMexicofor past 60 years(see Montanio, 1987; Alonso, 1984; RamirezSaiiz, 1986).12 Of sections thepopular of classesmayhavethe"freedom" give up to course, free but sections likewise are to organized-overt struggles altogether, other to of and continue engagein suchstruggle-the question historical cultural is particulars key. be Andwhymust forms resistance" of "everyday necessarily "hidden"? are for this case inMalaysiaandrebellions rare Although maybe the indeed, we that resistance always is not LatinAmerica should conclude "everyday" base communities, and radical covert. Religious squatters' struggles, armed of in of showthat, as theexistence a movements parts LatinAmerica just or lead in America doesnotautomatically toproletarian any proletariat Latin classes of of neither theexistence superordinate does kind revolution, other form on part imply particular ofresistance the oflosdeabajo. "Economic any determine do relations notmechanistically whether, andwhen how, persons

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it rebel.Marx himself, shouldbe remembered, positions in subordinate (Eckstein, circumstances" with historical vary that recognized class politics 1989: 5). vary of "modalities resistance according remarks, As Joseph perceptively of (1990: 22). in culture structures domination" and to differences regional he of from historical facts, writes: the Regarding socialdeterminationtruth of the ... "It was popularsupport thatmostdetermined 'social' content in on historical conjuncdepended thelarger Such support, turn, banditry. the of lay of that ture-on thecorrelation forces frequently beyond control more we overlook pleathat not and peasantry" (1990: 17).Scott's bandits the is but, appealstoJoseph, as apparently aspectsof resistance what mundane of makesclear,the "larger himself question peasantoptionsand Joseph to remains be resolved (1990: 31). and acrosstime regions" strategies to hidden resispopular I too applaudScott'scontributions uncovering is of it but tanceandgiving newmeaning, histheory resistance ultimately one. It does notexpector explainchange. a and ironically conservative to it Rather, tendsto reducesocial consciousness the acceptanceof a and ofcontemporary reality is initsownway thoroughly interpretation tragic to it Muchwork remains as romantic anytheory challenges. as profoundly with LatinAmerica studies comparing including be doneon socialconflict, in model that there of Unfortunately, is much Scott's other regions theworld. efforts. these willhinder NOTES
AihwaOng,Linda MichaelKearney, SusanEckstein, NancyScheper-Hughes, 1. I thank on and comments suggestions Watts their for and CarolA. Smith, Michael Green, PedroLewin, of Meeting the of of drafts thisessay.Portions thispaperwerereadat the35thAnnual earlier of CA, Berkeley, 13 April1991,andatthe90thMeeting the Society, Anthropological Kroeber 1991. 20-24November Chicago, Association, Anthropological American by advanced thosewhohave similar that to I find Scott'sargument 2. Methodologically the use Statesandthen thisto negate social of the discovered existence classesin theUnited "Race the of and significance gender nationality/race. is no longer issue,class is." Examining issue. wouldseemthecritical of theinterrelationthesefeatures to romanticism onlyleft-utopian trick tracing by a Scottemploys debater's 3. Further, if comefrom notfrom of of forms resistance do Where theories everyday origins. intellectual This gets intellectuals? lineofapproach us nowhere. in even theMalay culture whichhe has livedis an Scottdescribes 4. How accurately here. but question irrelevant interesting such and movements, as theGhost allowfor nativistic millenarian 5. Scott'smodelmight this Indiansand thecargocultsin Melanesiaearlier American Dance of 1890 amongNorth cultural valuesandorganization. erstwhile to which sought restore century,

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to onesofdeference therich from public transcripts the these 6. Scott distinguishes hidden between hidden publicis onlyone and distinctions sharp and such(see Scott,1990). Drawing for SorenGermer thispoint. of with formulation Scott's.I thank this oftheproblems OctavioPaz, in a passage so Once again,whatis considered novelaboutthisinsight? and point longago: "Slaves,servants submerged madethis class "simplistic" analysis, critiquing the when they alone,during great are Only smiling sullen. or weara mask, whether racesalways really are"(1961: 70). as dareto showthemselves they of do moments life, they He and about infrapolitics openrebellion. his that Scottis changing mind 7. Itis possible as of transcript a condition practicalresistance in bookof"thehidden writes his mostrecent in he Nonetheless, has yetto for thana substitute it" (1990: 191,emphasis original). rather question. comments this on his retract previous for point. to 8. Mythanks DebraYashar this of of lives and fates(1968) discussion theconcept shared 9. See also Jayawardena's workers. plantation niati-amongGuyanese between revolutionary class makesa distinction many, Giddens among 10. Forthisreason, consciousness and (1973: 113,116). consciousness conflict in constructionswomen Malaysiatoday of at of and 11. Fora description thestate cultural with see Scott's, Ong(1990). variance to orientation we times, notea different of more quiescent 12. Evenin histories genuinely in in Indian the villages writes during lengthy period which that Taylor than resistance Scott's. and and economic themselves their left political colonialMexico werelargely to administer of for stability desire thepart thecolonized socialchange; on there little was subjective affairs, states foremost weretheIndian's Taylor (1979: 123). of desires, and rapidresolution conflict asks whythe should rebel(in a losingcause),Taylor whypeasants ButwhileScottquestions of case is it a matter thepeasants'being In did peasants notrebelmoreand sooner. neither in involved openrebe!lion. of ignorant therisks

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