Atlantis Geographical Magazine of the Department of Geography, Lancaster University, 1993

Heroes and Heterotopia: Geopolitical Intrigue in Casablanca

Denis Linehan, Department of Geography, University College Cork, College Road, Cork IRELAND
Our taverns and our metropolitan streets, our offices and furnished rooms, our railroad stations and our factories appeared to have us locked up hopelessly. Then came the film and burst this prison world asunder by the dynamite of the tenth of a second, so that now, in the midst of it far flung ruins and debris, we calmly and adventurously go traveling. Walter Benjamin, The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction, 1923

i For some time now cultural geographers have been more forthright in claiming that the use photographs and film should form an integral part of geographical inquiry. In 1925, requesting we climb into the basket of a hot-air balloon and rise bravely skyward, the French geographer Jean Bruhnes encouraged us to consider from this fantastic observatory [where] the mind would be free from all it knows of man...what are the human facts that a photographic plate could register as well as could the retina of the eye ( Bruhnes, 1925: 60). This truly modernist suggestion, inherited the intention of a long visual tradition in Geography and magically prefigured the science of remote sensing, which now photographs the earth, using technology which has transcended the chemical limits of the photographic plate, to render, through long networks of digital data, envisionments of the Earth. Having attempted to claim the photograph as a way of exploring geographical facts, what Bruhnes would have made with more recent intellectual concerns, which investigate how images and text both reflect and help constitute the geography around us, we shall never know. But it is on the premise that his photographs from his balloon could be possibly examined in the context of their contribution to the making of imaginative geographies, that I start off here. As Benjamin has noted, through photographs and films, we calmly and adventurously go traveling.

Atlantis Geographical Magazine of the Department of Geography, Lancaster University, 1993

In this paper I want to travel through the Warner Brother film Casablanca, to draw out the possibilities of an analysis, which can offer us tangible insights into the power of representation and the mediated nature of geographical worlds. In this task I am assisted by the geographical nature of the film itself. To one commentator, Casablanca was how we thought we were, a pure explication of the mood in which we entered World War II (Gleason, 1992: 11). In November 1942, reviewing it at the Hollywood, the Warner Brothers flagship cinema in Manhattan, the film critic for the New York Tribune described how against the electric background of a sleek cafe in a North African port through which swirls a backwash of connivers, crooks and fleeing European refugees, the Warner Brothers are telling a rich, suave, exciting and moving tale in their new film, Casablanca. A year before the United States entered the World War II and a month after the film was released the Allies liberated the northern Moroccan city of Casablanca, the largest outpost of Vichy France. The city later hosted a major conference at which the Allies decided to invade Sicily and the Italian mainland after the completion of the North African campaign. Casablanca then was a place on everybody lips and in the nearly sixty years since the film has achieved a kind of cult status. Its popularity made it a subject of a successful television series in the 1950s.Its become standard fare at Christmas time. Its the late-late Friday night movie. Its the Valentine's Day special and its become the hub of endless parodying and pastiche. The Cantina Bar in Star Wars is modeled on Ricks American Cafe, even Bugs Bunny has parried in his cartoon pastiche, Carrotoblanca. If only in fragments, the lines Play again Sam, A kiss is just a kiss make this film familiar and universal, an icon of the 2Oth century. Casablanca then is a place of the imagination, traveled to in the darkened auditoriums of the cinema or in the comfort of a living-room, and interesting not in the way it tells us about a city in North Africa, but in what it says about American geopolitical sensibilities in the first phase of World War II. From realistic perspective Casablanca is poor representation of events in North Africa under the short-lived Vichy Government of 1940-1942. But beneath the dramatic portrayal of a love triangle between Rick Blain, the cynical hardboiled owner of Ricks Cafe Americana, Elsa Lund his former lover in Paris and her husband, and world famous freedom fighter, Victor Lazlo, there is a brilliantly disguised geopolitical subtext. Just as the creators of Star Trek created a space

Atlantis Geographical Magazine of the Department of Geography, Lancaster University, 1993

where the philosophy of the American frontier was re-enacted, the creators of Casablanca created a space where the question of American involvement in the war could be examined. During this period and throughout the Cold War, as the region around Los Angles grew as an arms provider, Hollywood helped produce the symbolic ammunition of war : propaganda. Casablanca has none of the startling cinematography of Leni Riefnestahls Truimph of the Will, which recorded Hitler at the Nuremburg Rally. Nor did it emerge from any of the official allied propaganda units. Like soap or cars or cornflakes, within the Hollywood studio system, this film was mass-produced. Yet it is replete with geopolitical references, which work to develop support for US involvement in the war. Originally an unproduced play called Everyone comes to Ricks, the screenplay was written by at least three different writers and completed, like this article, at the very last minute, even as the film was in production .But significant to the film' s role as propaganda, two of it scriptwriters, the Epstein brothers, left in the middle of the film for Washington to work on Francis Capella US propaganda project Why We Fight, designed to educate and motive soldiers about the War. Add to this the director Michel Curtiz's own Hungarian background and the influence of Jewish producers in the film industry, and one has rich milieu focused against the nature and consequences of European fascism. During the war, Hollywood was become to all extent and purposes, a propaganda factory and Casablanca one it best successes.

ii

the geography lesson Rick Sam, if its December 1941 in Casablanca, what time is it in New York? Sam Uh, My Watch stopped Rick drunken nostalgia I bet they're asleep in New York. I'll bet they're asleep all over America

Globes, maps, cartography: stuff from the geography classroom, but also the stuff from Casablanca. In keeping with its geopolitical intent, the film begins with a

Atlantis Geographical Magazine of the Department of Geography, Lancaster University, 1993

lesson in political geography that moves fluidly, but with conscious deliberation, through global, regional and local scales. Casablanca opens with a lingering shot over a map of colonial Africa, an image that sets the scene for the film within the Orient. Reflecting the uncritical acceptance of this state of affairs, this image is distinguished only by it commonality, like an image from a tattered, well thumbed school atlas. A short scene which using basic special effects consist of a high aerial flight over the globe follows this depiction. From the height of a hot-air balloon or perhaps a satellite, we travel westwards over the planet, passing over Hawaii and into Southeast Asia and then finally over that imagined place, Arabia, to Africa. This perspective and the direction of the journey are of some significance. The use of the globe stressed that this was a world war, meaning as Paul Virillo notes, that World War Two was a war in space rather than confined to the European battlefield.(Virillo in Wilson, 1998)Moreover the globe as Daniels has argued is inscribed with the terrestrial and celestial pretensions of government and thus adds authority to the story about to be told(Daniels, 1998).But why a flight over the Pacific rather than the Atlantic which historically European-American relationship are more usually imagined? Its explained I think in the manner in which this journey is set up as one of geo-political connections. After the attack on Pearl Harbour, the primary enemy for the USA is Japan, and with its higher emotional content, the journey over Asia emphasized this connection. The effacement of the Atlantic also reduces the notion that involvement in the war involved meddling in European affairs. In addition, embedded in the traditions of globes and maps used in American propaganda, the land mass that is presented in this movement corresponds to Halford Mackinder's famous geopolitical definition of the World Island (Pickles, 1992). Arguably this is part of the growing interest in what O Tuaihail calls middle-brow geopolitics in the USA, as a way of framing American interest in World War II (O Tuaihail 1996). And indeed to underline the significance of the globe, it was used to patriotic effect in a promotional shot made for the film, where the actor Paul Henreid, who plays the freedom fighter Victor Lazlo, reclaims Europe with his right hand, looking intensely into a Free World Future, the symbol Any doubt we might have about the political meaning of the globe is erased in the next section of film. As the globe revolves it dissolves into actual newsreel footage of the war and of fleeing refugees. The screen directions remark, As it revolves refugees are superimposed over it .As this occurs, in serious official tones, a narrator begins: With the coming of the Second World War, many eyes in imprisoned in Europe turned hopefully, or desperately toward the freedom of the

Atlantis Geographical Magazine of the Department of Geography, Lancaster University, 1993

Americas.Lisbon became the great embarkation point. But not everybody could get to Lisbon directly: and, so, a tortuous, roundabout refugee trail sprang up. Paris to Marsailles, across the Mediterranean to Oran, then by train, or auto, or foot, across the rim of Africa to Casablanca in French Morocco. Here the fortunate ones through money, or influence, or luck, might obtain an exit visa and scurry to Lisbon, and from Lisbon to the New World. But the others wait in Casablanca, and wait, and wait and wait. (Epstein and Koch, 1942) As the narrator speaks, an animated map illustrates the trail of these refugees develops. Slowly we travel across war-ravaged Europe, anxious music by Max Steiner emphasising the pressure and stress of the refugee path.Like the globe, the use of newsreel is particularly effective in framing the authority of what we are seeing, more so at the time of the film's release, where newsreel presentations in the picture house were the primary way of graphically representing the progress of the war to the mass public. The use of newsreels was also generally of course a central ploy in Second World War propaganda. A number of geographical remarks are also been made in this portrayal: Europe's plight is carefully constructed as a drama of human sorrow and need, and America, the New World, is established as her savior. Europe is imprisoned. America is free. The plot thickens. Our geography lesson is completed at one last scale. Having traveled over the globe and through Europe, we are now brought into Casablanca, down into the city itself. At this point the realist conceits of the first few minutes break down into the fictive world of the Hollywood movie and more traditional visions of what the Orient might well be. We move into the old Moorish section of the city where only the turrets and rooftops are visible against a torrid sky. The camera pans down the facades of the Moorish buildings to a narrow twisting street crowded with the polyglot life of a native quarter. The intense desert sun holds the scene in a torpid tranquility. Activity is unhurried. (Epstein and Koch, 1942). These images correspond very well to typical Orientalist portrayals of the East and through them the film places the plot and the characters of what is to come. Corruption, one of the key themes in the Casablanca is facilitated within this environment. Through the film we will be told that the bazaar is full of pick-pockets and thieves, that Casablanca in a cluttered Arab street of bazaars, shops and stalls. where there is the sinister under current of illicit trade. To fill out our Orientalist imagination exotic characters selling carpets and cloth, snake charmers and monkey are placed on display. One the first characters we meet, a thief known as The Dark European ironically warns An

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Englishman - I beg of you M'sieur, watch yourself. Be on guard. This place is full of vultures, vultures everywhere, everywhere.

iii

heroes and heterotopias

Once set in scene, the plot proceeds at a hectic pace and with it the exposition of the central geo-political concern dealt with in this carefully constructed nest of spaces, namely the issue of neutrality and American involvement in the war. The manner in which the film deals with neutrality is dependent in many ways on the careful construction of the distinct geographies of the film, used as a biased backcloth against which to explore aspects of American foreign policy. For instance in the early stages of the film, care is taken to establish Rick's Cafe Americain as a neutral zone. The opening shot of the cafe establishes it as a neutral zones where Arabs, distinguished by their Fez hats, mix with European and rather bizarre for North Africa, but understandable in terms of the United States involvement in the Pacific, a cluster of Japanese. A Japanese looking women sits beside Sam for instance when he sings Knock Wood. These images trade on notions of the border zone, setting up the Cafe as kind of political oasis in the stream of conflict. Critically, this spatiality translates into neutrality. Several times in the early part of the film, Rick makes explicit his public allegiance to neutrality. When a fight breaks out between a Nazi and French officer Rick steps in: Rick: I don't like disturbances in my place Renault If you are thinking of warning him, don't put yourself out. He cannot possibly escape. Rick: I stick my neck out for nobody. Renault: A wise foreign policy.

Atlantis Geographical Magazine of the Department of Geography, Lancaster University, 1993

Later to some Nazi officers he remarks: I'm not interested in politics. The problems of the world are not in my department. I'm a saloon keeper. Renault the unflappable, corrupt and chauvinist police captain remarks, Rick is completely neutral about everything. And that takes in the field of women too. Ricks neutrality is particularly underlined in a scene in which Renault reveals to Rick that be is about to stage the arrest of a character known as Ugarte [represented as orientalist] who has murdered two German couriers and stolen a couple of visas around which much of the narrative is organized. Reference to foreign policy abounds, but they are subtle, and unforced. The character of Sam the piano player, the singer of the famous As time goes by is used subtly and sophisticated manner. In a scene which Ferrari, a villainous character who describes himself as a leader of all illegal activities in Casablanca attempts to poach/ buy Sam from Rick, careful reading of the film will reveal that Ferrari says Sam twice, each time with heavy emphasis. Here there are at least three allusions: Sam becomes associated with Uncle Sam and when Rick declares that Sam is a free man, that he doesn't buy and sell human beings, the allusion is made that America is the Land of Freedom. At the same time the implication is that Uncle Sam cannot be bought and perhaps will enter the war for deeper and nobler reasons .Ferrari frustrated at Rick's response, makes a clear, but in the context of a Romantic Thriller, sub-textual reference to one of the central geopolitical strategies of successive American administrations before Roosevelt: Ferrari: My dear Rick when will you realize that in this world today isolationism is no longer a practical policy. Added to this is a third and critical layer: that of race. The presence of Black Americans within the US army remained in this period highly political and there were a number of racist attempts in the US senate to ban black soldiers from certain military occupations, such as working in intelligence or in the air force. The army like other areas of American society remained racially segregated.As Howard Koch notes however at time when most Black actors played Pullman waiters and maids and got to tap dance occasionally, Sam was a character written and played with dignitary and substance (Koch, 1973). The affirmation of Sam's independence can be read as an affirmation of the rights of Black Americans to participate in the war as equals. As the film progresses it becomes apparent that Rick's Cafe American is not so neutral a neutral zone and there is more to this saloon keeper, another all American persona for Rick, than meets the eye. The apparent neutrality of

Atlantis Geographical Magazine of the Department of Geography, Lancaster University, 1993

Rick's becomes subverted by the activities of the staff that attend secret resistance meetings, Rick's private rather than public sympathies, notably towards the young and desperate Bulgarian couple. It becomes apparent as well that Rick himself, behind the I stick my neck out for nobody facade possesses a kind of heroic Hemingwayesque gun running past. With reference to two to geopolitical events, fighting in Ethiopia in 1936, against the Italian invasion and during the Spanish civil war fought on the Loyalist side. Each time we are told he was on the losing but right side -fighting against Fascism. These exchanges are built up slowly and prepare the audience for when the partisan nature of the cafe is thoroughly exposed by the singing of the Marseillaise, the French national anthem. When Victor Lazlo, appalled by a crowd of German officers intimidating the cafe through the singing of Wacht am Rhein demands Play the Marseillaise! Play it!- the orchestra does so but only with the nod from Rick. Lazlo Play the Marseillaise! Play it! Members of the orchestra glance towards the steps, toward Rick who nods to them. As they start to play, Laszlo and Carmen sing. Straseer conducts the German singing in an attempt to drown out the competition. People in the cafe begin to sing. Finally Strasser and his officers give up and sit down. The Marseillaise continues however and now Yvonne has jumped up and is singing with tears in her eyes. Ilsa, overcome with emotion, looks proudly at Laszlo who sings with passion. Finally the whole cafe is standing, singing, their faces aglow. The song is finished on a high, triumphant note. Yvonne's face is exalted. She deliberately faces the alcove where the Germans are watching. She shouts at the top of her lungs. Yvonne Vive La France! Vive la democracie! Crowd: Vive La France! Vive la democracie! At this point the complete conflict of the war is brilliantly reduced to the dance floor of Rick's cafe, a point in the film where term the theatre of war takes on a more literal as well as metaphorical meaning.It is also the point where we get the strongest confirmation of the film heterotopic nature. Acting in many as an antecedent to current thought on space and subjectivity widespread in contemporary cultural geography, central to Foucault's work on heterotopia is the attention it draws to the forming and norming of identities in space and the stress in puts upon the significance of temporal and spatial conditions to knowing about and living in certain places. Foucault definition's of heterotopia

Atlantis Geographical Magazine of the Department of Geography, Lancaster University, 1993

fractured Cartesian conceptions of space, and associated notions of identity and subjectivity. He suggested thatwe are not living in a homogeneous and empty space but, on the contrary, in a space that is laden with qualities, a space that may also be haunted by fantasy (Foucault, 1990:177). He argued that all societies produce sites capable of juxtaposing in a single real place several spaces, several sites that are themselves incompatible. These sites were described paradoxically as a sort of counter arrangement, of effectively realised utopia, in which all the real arrangements, all the other real arrangements that can be found within society, are at one and the same time represented, challenged and overturned: a sort of place that lies outside all places and yet is actually localizable(Foucault, 1990:177). In this way, heterotopias are necessarily burdened with other spaces, and while this marks them as distinct, it also ensures that they function in relation to spaces that exist outside them. Hetherington concludes, it is this juxtaposition of things not usually found together and the confusion that such representations create, that marks out heterotopias and gives them their significance (Hetherington 1997: 42).Whole aspects of culture therefore can be fused and overturned simultaneously in one space, such as in museums and exhibitions.From these fundamental observations, as Soja has noted, Foucaults heteropology shows how to interpret human geographies as texts and contexts, how to see other spaces hidden in the more obvious and diverting multiplicity of real world sights and situations (Soja, 1996: 162). The heterotopic sites in his essay ranged over cemeteries, fairgrounds, gardens and ships. Rather than treating these as `case-studies', Foucault intention seems to have been to show, albeit obliquely, how they could at particular times generate a series of conditions of a spatial, temporal and subjective nature, which he regarded as elemental to the assembly of social relations, which made heterotopias paradoxically distinct and general in the same moment. As alternate sites of social ordering, heterotopias are inherently spatial and imaginary and very effective in reframe social relationships because of their power to refract norms by subsuming differences of style, logic and narrative. Rick's Cafe American is precisely this. Space in Casablanca exists inside a series of boxes and is collapsed, expanded and distorted at the will of its creators. It is inhabited only by nomads, drifters, by rich and poor, young and old, by beauties and by monsters, by characters of all nationalities. It is at once and the same time, a melting pot, a casino, a marketplace, a saloon, an embassy, a border zone, no-mans land, a battlefield, a cafe, a home, an office, a brothel, a trading post, a confessional, a negotiating table, a public demonstration, a place were social standing and status are overturned, and

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like the plot itself swiftly changing, shifting and unstable. Everyone comes to Ricks. Like the fantastic casinos in Las Vegas, which draw upon the architecture of the world to intensify their consumer experience, the heterotopia expands the representational capacity of the film, by increasing the complexity and power of its symbolic associations. Moreover operating as counter-sites, heterotopias can maximise the effects of propaganda (or of advertising) by facilitating intensity of artifice, and in distorting logical sequence of narrative, leaving the consumer or the viewer of the heterotopia more open to suggestion or indoctrination. It is no surprise either that in this the most blatant display of patriotism - which not only reportedly brought patriotic tears to the audiences that saw it, but according to one of the screen writers, Julius Epstein, actually made him cry when he wrote it - that the Marseillaise wins. It was stuff like this that stirred the New York Tribune to remark, Casablanca is one of the years most exiting and trenchant films. The simple message is that the Allies too will win out in the end and the territorial advantage secured in Rick's cafe will be repeated on the battlefield. And even though the Nazis succeed in closing the cafe down, they do not destroy it. Setting him up as a patriarch Rick magnanimously decides to keep all the staff on full pay, invoking a spirit of resistance can be read as a subtle message of triumph for nations like the British under siege, but whose morale was portrayed as unbroken. Examined more closely Rick's decision to finally reject his neutral stance mirrors the desire for America to enter the war, an act precipitated by the preemptive Japanese attack on the American fleet in Pearl Harbour in December 1941.Though the film was made at a time when the Monroe Doctrine had extended US influence into central America where historically American interests where more clearly defined, the role for America as a global policeman was more contested. As I've already suggested, there was a large and popular lobby that resisted American intervention in the war in Europe and what was perceived as meddling in European affairs. Hearden (1986: 21) remarks for instance that the overwhelming majority of Americans did not want to have their boys sent to fight on the battlefields of Europe.The character of Rick is plainly used as a vehicle through which to explore this issue. As the only white American of any significance in the film, his position, and the ideals that he represents can be quickly associated to the dominant male gaze facilitated by the American viewing public. This in mind, some attempt has been made to link the character to Roosevelt, the American president. (These associations take on a bizarre historical twist if one considers that Ronald Reagan was at one time proposed for the part of Rick and,

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furthering its heterotopic status of the film, that the Spanish for White House is in fact casa Blanca ( Eco 1996). But we can go further and argue that Rick Blain in fact represents an all American Everyman. Through the awakening of his love for Elsa he becomes involved again. She represents the old relationship with Europe, the memory. The lost love affair is the lost heartland. Once awoken, the dilution of his neutral stance proceeds steadily afterwards. When the European freedom fighter Victor Lazlo grips the Everyman's hand at the airport as he is about to depart with Ilsa and remarks Welcome back to the fight, it is clearly understood that he is welcoming America into the war. Holding Ilsa in his arms Rick tells her ...I've got a job to do. Where I'm going you can't follow. His decision to stay and fight and to sacrifice the great love of his life, is an invitation for American men to come and join him, to put aside their families and loved ones and come on over. Simultaneously it confirms a sexual division of labor, where the women are excluded from the honor of battle and stay at home to keep the home-fires burning.

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the end Rick Louis, I think this is the beginning of a beautiful relationship

Casablanca reflects many political sentiments and the nuances of the film deserve more than just the cursory examination given here. But carefully reinscribed within their social and political contexts, texts like the film Casablanca can be regarded not only in terms of how they invoke landscapes, people and place, but how they legitimated powerful discourses, which in the case of US involvement in WW2, had significant consequences. The films subtle and powerful messages are one of the best examples of the articulation of the American War Office's desire to use the vernacular of the popular Hollywood movie to generate popular

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support for the war effort. Its been estimated that over fifty million dollars were spent in Hollywood during the war years on films directly related to the state's propaganda needs. Other Warner Brother films like Air force and Action in the North Atlantic also starring Humphrey Bogart, had the full co-operation of the War Office in providing money and equipment; but none were as sophisticated as propaganda as Casablanca. The geopolitical condition is focused through romantic melodrama, is understood in a carefully constructed stage which manipulates and distorts geographical knowledge to political ends, and the political message is made all the more powerful by its complete immersion in the textual structures of a romantic thriller, in which it is absorbed uncritically by the viewer. The Warner Brother's Casablanca is perhaps most remarkable in the manner in that it illustrates in a highly stylised fashion a sense of the `geopolitical situation' and constructs a sequence of geographical meanings that would have been difficult to achieve in a straight forward realistic narrative fashion and near impossible in a geography textbook of the time. In precisely that it is a stylistic rather than a realistic treatment of events that it owes much of its success and has endured so long. Similar to the way Dr. Zivago articulated, in an equally ideological manner the impact of the Russian revolution, or the way The Mission powerfully brought home the travesty and horror of the European colonization of South America, the tragedy of war is outlined in human terms, in human stories which touch universal sentiment. Such forms of stylistic media are essential agents in constructing popular, nonintellectual understandings of geopolitical events and geographers have much to learn in the way that such popular end often partisan representations of the geographical are constructed and portrayed. The way CNN currently constructs geographical images of international conflict, and indeed similar to Casablanca generates support for active American involvement in the Middle East, can fall into a similar frame of analysis. Work by Dalby (1990) and 0 Tuathail (1996) which has focused on the role of discourse and language as important devices in the making of the geographical has much to offer, and their conceptual framework can be transferred to examine geographical structures in popular culture. Moreover, in a period of our history when geographical horizons are expanding rapidly with the creation of new countries and even new hyperreallties which possess their own geographies, and argument as to what actually constitutes the geographical is hotly debated, geographers and young geographers in particular, have a lot to contribute and a lot to gain in this kind of analysis. In the words of Rick Blain the geography might be difficult to arrange, but it is always worthwhile. We have much to learn from the characters of Casablanca: in the final scene the airport is dark, the drone of the

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airplane fills the air and fearless, they venture out into the fog. Into the unexpected. Into geography. Here's looking at you, kid.

References:

Barnes Trevor and James Duncan 1992, Writing worlds: discourse, text and metaphor in the representation of landscape, Routledge, London Bruhnes Jean, 1925 La geographie humaine, 3 eme edition Paris, Felix Alcan, 1925 Eco Umberto 1986, Casablanca: Cult Movies and Intertextual Collage in Travels in Hyperreality. Secker and Warburg Limted: New York Daniels, Stephen 1998 Mapping National Indentiesin GeoffreyCubitt Imagining Nations, Manchester University Press,Manchester Dalby Simon 1990, Creating the Second Cold War: The Discourse of Politics. Pinter:London Foucault Michel 1980The Order of Things,Tavistock Publications, London Hearden Patrick 1986, Roosevelt confonts Hitler:America's entry into World War II. Northern Illinois University Press:Illinois Koch, Howard1992. Casablanca: Script and Legend. Aurum Press: London, Pickles, John 1992 Texts Hermeneutics and Propaganda Mapsin Trevor Barnes and James Duncan, (eds) Writing Worlds, Routledge, London Tuathail Gearoid and John Agnew(1992), Geopolitcs and Discourse; Practical Reasoning in American Foreign Policy, Political Geography, 11 2 ,190-204. 0 Tuathail Gearoid 1996Its Smart to be Geopolitical: Narrating German Geopolitcs in US Political Discourse, 1939-1943 in his Critical Geopolitics, Routledge, London. Wilson, Louise1998, CyberWar, God and Television: interview with Paul Virolio, CTHEORY http://www.ctheory.com