GCC-CIGRE- 2010

GCC POWER 2010 CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION

Doha 18-20 Oct. 2010

Fault Detection in Overhead Transmission Lines Using the Wavelet Transform

Dr. Hilal Al-Nasseri Oman Electricity Transmission Company (OETC) Oman Email: hilal.alnasseri@omangrid.com

Abstract: The subject of Wavelet transform has received ample attention within the power community over the past decade because it is the most suitable method of analysis of certain types of power transient waveforms of various approaches. The field of fault detection in power system transmission lines is one of the novel vicinities for which wavelet transform has become interesting. In this paper, an investigation into creating a feature extractor for Fault Detection by means of using wavelet transform will be introduced. This will be accomplished by applying discrete wavelet transform to voltage and current waveforms. DWT (Discrete Wavelet Transform) has the ability of capturing irregular data patterns, such as sharp jumps, which are the actual form of faults. Optimizing the choice of the mother wavelet is the next step in ensuring the most accurate fault detection technique in a wide variety of fault conditions and differing systems. This paper will present a method of optimizing the mother wavelet by proposing detection logic based on wavelet analysis. Extensive simulations are carried out to generate a time domain input signal for wave transform using EMTP on a 400 kV, 120 km long line. These simulations reveal that the proposed method is simple and effective. Keywords: Fault Detection, Wavelet, Discrete Wavelet Transform I. Introduction:

Wavelet transform of a signal, on the other hand, decomposes the signal in both time and frequency domain, which turns out to be very useful in fault detection and localization. The reasons why WT is better suited for analyzing certain types of transient waveforms than FT are: First since wavelet is described in the sense of being short duration with finite energy which integrates to zero, therefore it is suitable for transients. Several methods have also been tried out to analyze power system transients. Such methods are Fourier series, Fourier transform and short time Fourier transform. The first one requires periodicity of all the time functions, a feature that does not exist in transients. The second method, FT, implies that the frequency of a signal is calculated by the average over the entire time duration of the signal. The latter method was introduced to overcome this problem; however the drawback is that the STFT has limitations of using a fixed window width. Therefore, STFT does not provide requisite good resolution in time and frequency, which is important for transient signals comprising with high and low frequencies. Another advantage of using WT is that it has the ability to focus on a shorttime interval for high frequency and long-time interval for low-frequency. This is to improve the analysis of the signal with localized impulses and oscillation. In a sense, wavelets have a window automatically adapts to give appropriate resolution [8] [9]. III. Analysis of Transients by Wavelet Transform Wavelet theory is the mathematics, which deals with building models for non-stationary signals, using a set of components that look like small waves, called wavelets. It has become a well known useful tool since its introduction, especially in signal and image processing [10]. a. Continuous Wavelet Transform

Fault detection estimation is important in a power system in order to clear faults from transmission lines and to restore supply as soon as possible with minimum interruption. The detection of line faults in a power transmission system is a much studied subject with many different approaches. The employment of such segregation devices, switches and circuit breakers, has a significant role to play in the isolation of faulted parts in the system. In the power systems context, the term fault is usually reserved for electrical breakdown, in the form of an arc between phases of the system and/or more phases to earth. Since faults cannot be avoided it is important to know how the system will react to a fault at any particular point. This paper describes the application of the wavelets used to detect changes in signals, in the form of fault, recorded during disturbances in a specific power network. The wavelet analysis is a new powerful tool of signal analysis well suited for fault generated signals. The windowing of wavelet transform is regulated for low frequencies as well as high frequencies, i.e., it uses short time intervals for high frequency components and long time interval for low frequency components. Wavelet analysis is based on the decomposition of a certain signals into scales using a wavelet function called mother wavelet. Over the years, researchers have applied many methods to the problem of arcing fault detection. Given a particular detection criteria, the conventional methods are based on setting up computational steps centred on the specific criteria. The criteria used over the years was based on the following characteristics; energy content of the signal, high frequency information compiled over time and statistical information from the current and voltage waveforms [1]. Another approach widely used is the over current protection relays, yet it is sometimes difficult to use with high impedance faults (HIFs). In mainstream literature, wavelets were first applied to power system transients in 1994 [2]. However with reference to fault location using wavelets, Magnago and Abur set in motion the development of a few investigation line purposes, the fault generated travelling wave is processed by the wavelet transform to reveal their travel times between the fault and the relay locations; EMTP simulations are used to test and validate the proposed fault location. In 1999 the author extended the method to identification of fault in distribution systems [3]. High impedance fault identification is other application area of wavelet transform, for example in [4] Charytoniuk presented a comparative analysis for arc fault time location, frequency and time-frequency domain, the author demonstrated that the wavelet approach is strongly affected by the choice of a wavelet family, decomposition level, sample rate and arcing fault behaviour. II. Justification of using Wavelet Transform In the past, several methods to detect faults have been used with different techniques based on travelling wave theory, Fourier analysis and wavelet analysis. Travelling wave theory requires high sampling rate and has problems in distinguishing between waves reflected from the fault. Fourier analysis has a serious drawback since it transforms signals in frequency domain, losing all information on how the signal is spatially distributed.

One of the basics concepts of wavelet analysis is that, it employs a prototype function called mother wavelet. This function has a mean of zero and sharply decays to an oscillating function. Continuous wavelet transform CWT, of a given x(t) is defined as:

CWT(a, b) =

1 a

x (t ) g (

tb ) dt ......................................... (1) a

Where: a: dilation or the scale factor. b: translation factor. Scaling simply means stretching or compressing a wavelet, and translation is shifting a wavelet by delaying or hastening its onset. Note that x(t) is mapped to a new function space across scale, a, and translation, b, by WT. A WT coefficients cwt (a, b) at a particular scale and translation represents how well the original signal x(t) scaled and translated mother wavelet match. Thus, the set of all wavelet coefficients cwt (a, b) associated with a particular signal are the wavelet representation of the original signal x(t) with respect to g(t). g(t) like a window function Narrow-band frequency components are associated with a smaller scale factor where as wideband frequency components are allied with large scale factor. b. Discrete Wavelet Transform

In wavelet analysis we often speak of approximations and details. Approximations deal with higher scale and low frequency components whereas details deal with lower scale and higher frequency components. The discrete wavelet transform is given by:

DWT(m, k) =
Where:

1 a

x( n) g (

k nba ) ........................................ (2) a

m

a = a0

b = nb 0 a 0

k = integer variable refers to a particular sample number in an input signal. DWT is implemented by using a multi-stage filter. The filter process at its simplest form is illustrated in figure 1 below:

GCC-CIGRE- 2010

GCC POWER 2010 CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION

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pass filter (detail 1). The first detail will capture the band of frequencies between Fs/2 and Fs/4. Similarly the second detail would capture the band of frequencies Fs/4 and Fs/8 and so on. This implies on the type of mother wavelet is used. Therefore when applying the DWT to a number of cycles of the transient signal, the highest frequency component present at the sampling frequency of say in our case Fs = 4 kHz, is 2 kHz; this is reflected in the signal dilation. The dilations in the lower frequency ranges of 2 kHz 1 kHz, 500kHz250kHz, 125kHz62.5kHz respectively. This will help to attribute the features of power transient signals. Certainly the dilation in the lower range of frequency shows persists for a much longer period of time. IV. Simulated Network Figure 1 Implementation of DWT using multi-stage Filter The original signal passes through two complementary filters and emerges as two signals as shown above. Therefore, the first phase at this stage is to obtain the details and approximation coefficients by wavelet transform. The second phase involves how to come up with a fault detection technique using these coefficients. Figure 2 shows a block diagram of the first phase. More coefficients can be produced by using multiple-level decomposition analysis, where down sampling is introduced to reduce the number of data which is not required [11]. There is going to be a case where it is needed to reconstruct a wavelet. This is achieved by assembling the components back into the original signal with loss of information. Up sampling is significant at this case where zeros are inserted between samples of the signal. The process is called reconstruction or synthesis and its mathematical manipulation is Inverse DWT. In addition, optimum selection of filters is very crucial in achieving perfect reconstruction of the original signal [5]. Figure 3 shows a complete block diagram of the decomposition and reconstruction analysis. A simple schematic for the proposed power system network is shown in figure 4. The network consists of two end sources, two buses and a transmission line was used for the simulation purpose. The power network depicted in the figure below is a 400kV three phase system. There are two ends as shown, end S and end R. The first having a termination of 5,000MVA, whereas the latter has a termination of 20,000MVA.

Figure 4 Transmission power system network Typical parameter values for 400kV lines have been selected and are going to be discussed further in the next section. The transmission line between the two sources is 120km in length. Faults are created at various distances along the line. Ranges for the selectable parameters for each section of the modelled network have been selected to suit the simulation software EMTP. For instance, the X:R ratio, the reactance to resistance components, for end S and end R have been selected to be of ratio 30. Another similar proposition was the source impedance ratio in terms of its positive and zero phase sequences, whereby the ratio was chosen to be one, i.e. Zso:Ss1 = 1. ATPDraw was used to design the modelled electric power network. The designed network is shown in figure 5 below. The two sources of the modeled network, which was described in the previous section, are represented by two generator sources. The type of generator used is an AC-three-phase with steady-state cosines function. In addition, the source impedances are illustrated by RLC components shown in the figure below. On the other hand, the transmission line/cable is represented by two objects in order alleviate the simplicity of entering the line lengths with regard to the fault location.

Figure 2 Block Diagram showing the first phase of obtaining the Details coefficients by WT

Figure 5 Simulated model built in EMTP a. System Parameters:

Figure 3 Full Implementation of DWT The DWT can represented in a two dimensional grid, but with very different division in time and frequency. If the original signal is being sampled at Fs hertz then the highest frequency that the signal would faithfully represent is Fs/2 based on Nyquist theorem. This would be seen as the output the high

Sources: GEN1 and GEN2 are 400 kV in which their phase voltage will consequently be 326 kV. In addition the inception angle of theses sources is zero degrees and their operating frequency is 50 Hz. Distributed lines: total line length is 120km formed by two distributed parameters for various reasons. The positive phase impedance: Zl1=0.02+j0.25 km-1, and the zero phase sequence impedance: Zl0=0.1+j0.76 km-1.

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3-Phase RLC: Independent values in phases are 1, 30 and zero for resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively. These values are the same for each phase. Switches: the optimum closing time chosen for the switches in the simulation is 0.03sec and the simulation end time is 0.09sec.

The selected sampling frequency for the simulation is 4 KHz. Therefore, the time step of the simulation in seconds is 2.5E-6. i.e. T=0.0000025s. Another aspect concerning this matter is the print frequency, which was chosen to be 500. A value of 500 means that at every 500 time steps, results will be printed. However the plot frequency (frequency of saving solutions to the output file PL4) is chosen to be 100 for calculation simplicity. This is demonstrated below:

In relation to the approval and the capability of a different of mother wavelet from one the selected above, figure 7 shown below depicts the current transient of phase A analysed by Coiflet4. However, for this case the fault occurs at distance of 60km (in the middle of the transmission line). Again looking at detail waveforms it is evident that coif4 has relatively the same ability for detecting the fault in comparison with db4. Nevertheless the only differences spotted are on the peak magnitudes in which the Coiflet wavelet has slightly smaller magnitudes. This feature concerning the magnitudes plays a significant role in form a fault detection technique.

fs =

1 * t ................................................................................................ (3) N

Where: N: Number of Samples Fs: Sampling Frequency Referring to the formula above with a fixed time step the plot frequency varies according to the sampling frequency. V. Transient Feature Extraction Results: Multi-resolution analysis has been performed on different types fault conditions (for various fault distances) according to the above discussed signal decomposition and representation together with the selected types of mother wavelets. MATLAB with Wavelet toolbox has been used for implementing the application of signal decomposition analysis. The transients which are to be decomposed are the faulty current and voltage signals only. However when dealing with optimising the threshold value for, healthy current and voltage signals have to be taken into consideration. As for the fault conditions, there are three types of fault generated from the EMTP network. So, their voltage and current will be analysed as follows: a. Single Phase to Ground Fault

For this type of fault the four types of wavelet (db4, sym5, coif4 and bior3.1) have been implemented to analyse the current and voltage transients. Figure 6 typifies the decomposition of current transient signal of phase A to six levels d1d6 using the Daubechies mother wavelet db4. The fault distance for this case is 10km and the inception angle of the generator is 0 deg. It is noted that the original current signal is composed of the six detail levels in addition to the sixth approximation level, i.e. S = a6 + d6 + d5 + d4 + d4 + d3 + d2 + d1. These are obtained by applying the DWT to a number of cycles of the current signal, and as expected the highest frequency component present at the sampling frequency 4kHz is 2kHz. This is reflected in the first detail d1. By examining the high frequency dilations waveforms, it is apparent that d1 and d2 have highest ability to detect the fault in the form of clear spikes, i.e. the oscillation only takes place according to the fault occurrence then it dies out.

Figure 7 coif4 wavelet analysis on A-phase current for A-G at 60km VI. Fault Detection Algorithm: This section describes the proposed fault detection algorithm. The detection algorithm is derived from single phase to ground type fault where wavelet thresholding is observed and utilising the concept of spectral energy approach to reach a final verdict on the whole decision making logic. Then upon reviewing the detection performance, the optimal mother wavelet can be selected. Thresholding techniques are extensively used in almost every aspect of engineering dilemma in general. Therefore it is employed at this stage of the paper in order to extract a feature of distinguishing between normal and faulted currents. In the analysis of signal decomposition using the method of multi-resolution investigation, an optimal thresholding scheme is applied whereby the maximum value of coefficient in detail 1 is obtained over one cycle window of the fault transient. Subsequently, series of maximum coefficient values is recorded for various distances to study the relationship between the healthy phases and the faulted phases. The inception fault angle is also taken into account to facilitate any modifications with regard to variations in coefficient magnitudes. The types of mother wavelets employed for this task are; db4, sym5, bior3.1 and coif4, similar to what had been chosen previously. With respect to different fault conditions, a single-phase to ground fault has only been adopted to carry out the investigation of wavelet thresholding.

Figure 6 db4 wavelet analysis on A-phase current for A-G at 10km

GCC-CIGRE- 2010

GCC POWER 2010 CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION

Doha 18-20 Oct. 2010

evaluated to be 0.1 for a minimum of two cycle period which corresponds to 128 sample number. Therefore, db4 and sym5 mother wavelets seem to be the most effective wavelets in detecting the faults under single phase to ground condition since they have considerably high summated values of coefficients with higher distances between the faulted and the healthy phases. Figure 10 depicts the behaviour of absolute summated values of detail 1 coefficients for a particular fault located 10km from the source, using db4 wavelet analysis.

Figure 8 Variation of the summated values of the d1 coefficient for 3-phase current signal regarding A-G fault with 00 inception fault angle. Figure 8 illustrates the summated value of d1 coefficients of the three phase current for a single-phase to ground fault. The variations of coefficient values have been plotted as a function of time with inception fault angle of 0 deg. It is evident from the variation graph that the faulted phase (A phase) has a significant larger coefficient value than the healthy phases B and C because faulted currents are found to be higher in amplitude within shorter distances. On the other hand, for longer distances the coefficient values start to increase slightly due to the instability which produces voltage sag on the healthy phases. Also to be noted from the figure 8 above is that db4 and bior3.1 have larger summated coefficient values, whereas coif4 has the smallest values.

Figure 10 Energy estimate variation of summated values of the coefficient d1 for AG as a function of time. (a) Fault near voltage maximum of A-G. (b) Fault near voltage zero of A-G. The graphs above show extreme fault cases for fault inception angle of 0 deg and 90 deg. The case of maximum voltage, V 90deg, gives rise to maximum high frequency transients in voltage and in significant DC offsets in current signals. Whereas the second case for V 0deg, produces little voltage transients but larger DC offsets in current signals. The proposed technique starts by indicating a variable initialisation for which a sample number is specified. It then calculates the peak absolute sum value of the three-phase currents (Aa, Ab, and Ac) from detail 1 level. Finally the fault is claimed if any of the absolute sum values exceed the predetermined threshold value. However, it procedure moves into the next analysis window in the case of non-occurrence of the fault. A detailed algorithm in shown in figure 11.

Figure 9 Variation of the summated values of the d1 coefficient for 3-phase current signal regarding A-G fault with 90 deg inception fault angle. The figure 9 above demonstrates the same variation but in this case the inception fault angle is 90deg. The faulted phase here is phase A whereas the healthy phases are B and C. The summated coefficient values are noticeably larger than the ones for the previous inception angle. Another feature to be observed is that the differences in summated values between the faulted phases and the healthy phases are significantly increased. Another significant point that should be mentioned is the effect of other source, GEN2, in which it levitates the A-phase almost after the midpoint of the line. This is evident, in both graph 8 and 9, by the sharp drops and rises for the faulted phases. The summated values of the coefficients are based on summated detail 1 coefficients over one-cycle window and the sampling rate employed is 4 kHz, i.e. 64samples/cycle at 62.5Hz. The whole process is based on moving the approach of one-cycle window continuously by one sample. The selection of the optimum mother wavelet comes about by studying and verifying the magnitudes of the summated coefficients of detail 1 and the differences between the faulted and the healthy phases. Through extensive studies and evaluations, an optimal predetermined threshold has been

Figure 11 Detailed Fault Detection Technique Flow Chart

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GCC POWER 2010 CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION

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Summary: 1. Indicate the sample number using the counter M. 2. Perform DWT realisation on data passed through. 3. Determine the absolute sum value sum(d1) of the detailed output for 1-cylce. 4. Determine whether sum(d1) excess the threshold limit using counter FC. If yes counter M can be incremented otherwise it is reset and next window is processed Indicate the sample number using the counter M. 5. Perform DWT realisation on data passed through. 6. Determine. 7. Counter M has to exceed an integer D before the signal is tripped, i.e. D is the trip level. VII. Conclusions: In this paper a power system network model comprising of a high voltage overhead transmission line was designed and set up. Single, double and double phase to ground faults were applied to the designed model. Fault current and voltage transients were investigated with the aid of an Electromagnetic Transient simulation program. The transient phenomenon was investigated at different fault locations. Subsequently it was observed that, by applying different locations with regard to fault types, fault current magnitudes increased with short fault distances (i.e. the magnitude of fault currents were inversely proportional to fault distances). On the contrary, voltage magnitudes decreased with shorter distances. In addition, the travelling-wave transients characterise, to a large extent, the attenuation in its wave components through longer distances. The application of Wavelet multi-resolution analysis, utilizing Wavelet Transform, has been proposed for the identification and classification of faults on a transmission line. The property of multi-resolution theory is found to be most effective for this subject matter. Selection of the mother wavelets based on the summated coefficients of level one detail and the differences in magnitudes between the faulted and healthy phases has been proposed. In this respect, after a series of simulation analysis employing the aforementioned summated values coefficient values approach was carried out, both db4 and sym5 proved to be the most effective types of mother wavelets. With regards to the abovementioned optimum mother wavelet, a new, simple and robust algorithm for fault detection is proposed. The fault detection technique is based on a predetermined optimal threshold value. When this threshold value is exceeded for a specified preset level, a trip signal is initiated and indicates a fault. VIII. References

[1] Russel, Don B., and Chinchali, R.P., A Digital Signal Processing Algorithm for Detecting Arcing Faults on Power Transmission and Power Distribution Feeders IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 4 No. 1, Jan 1989, pp. 132- 140. [2] D. Robertson, O. Camps, and J Mayer Wavelets and power system transients, April 1994. [3] Magnago, F.H; Abur, A. A new fault location technique for radial distribution systems based on high frequency signals IEEE power engineering society summer meeting, 1999, Vol. 1. [4] Charytoniuk, W.; We-Jen Lee; Mo-Shing Chen; Cultera, J.; Theodore Maffetone, Arcing fault detection in underground distribution networks feasibility study IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications Vol. 63, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 2000. [5] B.M. Weedy, B.J. Cory, Electric Power Systems fourth edition November 2001, ISBN 0-471-97677-6. [6] J.A. Harrison, The Essence of Electric Power Systems 1996, ISBN 0 13- 397514-2. [7] Misiti, M. Misiti, Y Oppenheim, G. and Poggi, J Wavelet Toolbox Manual Users Guide The Math Works Inc. USA March 1996. [8] Chul Hwan Kim, Raj Aggarwal, Wavelet Transform in Power Systems General Introduction to the WT, Part I Power Engineering Journal, April 2000. [9] Chul Hwan Kim, Raj Aggarwal, Wavelet Transform in Power Systems General Examples and Application to Actual Power System Transients, Part II Power Engineering Journal, August 2001. [10] K. Harish Kashyap, U. Jayachandra Shenoy, Classification of Power System Faults Using Wavelet Transforms and Probabilistic Neural Networks May 1998. [11] Paul Addison, The Illustrated Wavelet Transform Handbook Introductory Theory and Applications in Science, Engineering, Medicine and Finance 2002, ISBN 0-7503-0692-0.

Bibliography
Hilal Al-Nasseri received the BS Degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman in 2000. He received his MSc and PHD degree from University of Bath, UK in 2003 and 2006 respectively. In 2000, he joined the Ministry of Housing Electricity & Water as a Protection Engineer. Currently he is the head of control at Oman Electricity Transmission Company. His research interests include power system control, economic dispatch, power distribution systems, digital protection, power system modelling and fault location.