\mb ]mccyw \mbcpw \mKcpw Hct\zjWw

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Iemw hn`Xnw WZmIcky bx {]IminXmimw inckm K`kvXn`nx \tamkvXp Xkvssa kpchnXmw{Ltb kakvXhnZym {]`hmb iw`th1 \mbmscn kqvahpw kwn]vXhpamb Hcp hnhcWw km[ya. A`yqlfpsS Hcp ]ccbmWv \mbmscn Cv \ne\np k]. XangIns `mKambncpp \mb ]mccyw F [mcWtbmsSbmWv Fgpmcw`nXv. ]s, ]T\hpw Fgppw ]ptcm Kantm \mbm Xangv `mjmc, {]IrX`mjnIfmbncppsh kqN\ icnbmsWv tXmn. a[y]uckvXytZip \npw ImemImefn Dmb {ZmhnUcpsS hyXyamb ssIhgnI IS amhpw Icamhpw Fn CSIenpmImw F \nKa\ntem Wv hnhn[ A`yql hgn ImnbXv. A`yqlv D]cnbmb \mbcpsS kzXzw khpw `{ZImfnbpw kn]mccyhpw Xm{nIamb A\pjvTm\fpamsWv \mK]mccyhpambp XmcXayneqsS Bpw hyamIpXmWv. cmPm\sbpw KpPdmnsebpw apw imI ]mccyhpambn \mK]mccyw Cg]nWp InSpXp sImv hyamb AYhm kqvaamb Hcp hhynXzw XnsSppI e`yamb sXfnhpI sImv km[ya. ssih imtb ]mccyw a[y]uckvXy\mb ]mckv cma\n \npw ssP\_u ]mXIfneqsS sXtmv HgpInsbnbXpw {Ion \npw IS hgn FnbXpw tIcfn kwKanncn mw. \mbcpsS AdnbsSp Ncn{Xnse khntijXI \mK]mccyw Xopw kqNn nphbmsWv Xmsg N sNsSp hkvXpXI \nwibw sXfnbnpp. \mbcpsS BNmcm\pjvTm\sfmpw Xs {]mIrXa. knm\p`hns ASnm\n X{imkv{Xns {]XoImIXbpw t{ibkvIcamb A\pjvTm\]Xnbpw ASpXmWv \mbcpsS IpemNmc. [mcmfw ZoLamb DcWnIfpsv ]epw tXmmw. kzXzw tXSp \mbmp at\m[n\v A\pkcnv kzXzkmmXvImcw t\Sm DXIWw F Xm]cyamWv DcWnIv ]nn. Hcp hynbpsS It]meI]nXsaXnep]cnbmbn \mK]mccyns imkv{XobX kmP\o\amb AwKoImcw knn hkvXpXbmsWv t_mysv BKuchn\v D]Icnpw Fv {]Xyminpp. A]qamb sXfnhpIsf bpnamneqsS A]{KYnp aptdptm Fmw icn Fv bpnv tXmpsanepw B icn hkvXpXIv hncpamImw. DZmlcWn\v, aty]uckvXytZihpambn _s Dulmt]ml XssbSpmw. \mKcpsS ]pcmX\ XdhmSv bYmn {Iov Zzo]w Bbncppthm AtXm Cs Imws_ DSen Isnbncnp ]pcmX\amb ZzmcIbmbncppthm? kptadnb kwkvImchpw sskhkckzXokwkvImchpw ISnen XmW ZzmcIbpsS AhinjvStfm Dbnsgpt]pItfm BtWm? {In.ap. 3100 F ]pcmW{]knamb IenbpKmZn hsc IS\ncv \qdntesd ao XmsgbmbncpXmbpw Imws_Sense AXn{]mNo\ kwkvImcns ]nme ]XnpIfmWv Cdnhmb \mKcnIXIsfpw A`yqlapv. Hcp ]s, AXn]pcmX\amb {In.ap. 3100 tem atm Pe\nc pbpmb {]fbm apntmb aqe\mKkwkvIrXnbpsS ]cnWXnIfmImw {]fbm\ c `mcXn ImWpXv. IenbpKmZnbpw tPymXnximkv{Xhpw {]IrX`mjbpw \mKtbm\n
1

\mep]mSpw {]Imiw sNmcnbp Xne NqSnb, kakvXhnZyIfpsSbpw DdhnSamb iw`phns, tZhmcm kZm ]cnNcnsSp ]mZfn Fs \akvImcw.
1

enwKmZnIfpsamw kw`mh\bmImw.

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AkpcmcpsS,

1.

BcmWv \mb?

BcmWv \mb F tNmZyn\v Cv e`yamIp Dcw, tIcfw AYhm ae_m F ]pWy]pcmX\`qanbn Cv ZriyamIp lnpP\PmXnIfnsemcp hn`mKamWv \mb FXmWv. ap hmpIfn kwn]vXambn ]dm aebmfnIfnse Hcp hn`mKw Ahsc \mbscp hntijnnpp. Chcn D]XnjvWpfm Hcp \yq\]w Cpw \mb F hmev t]cnt\msSmw [cnphcmWv. \mbmcpsS btim[mhfyw {_nojv Cybn kZm sI.Fw.]Wnsctmsebp _pnPohnIfmepw kzX{`mcXn hn.]n.tat\ms\ tmsebp {]Xn`mimenIfmepw hn]peamstm \mbcpsS kwLS\m]mShn\v DuSpw ]mhpw \InbXv bixicoc\mb {io.ap ]\m`\mWv. {io. ap ]\m`\pw {io.tIf\psams \mbsc hmep apdnv ]ptcmKa\ns ]mXbneqsS \mb kaqls \bnphm {ianhcmWv. \mbcpsS kwLS\m inbpsS {]XoIambn Cv \mb kokv skmsskn N\mtcnbn Xebpbn \npp. ItbmKnIfmbncp {io.InSq tKm]meIrjvW]nbpw {io.\mcmbWWncpw Ign aqp ZiIfn t\XrXzw \In ]Sppbnb Cu alm{]m\ns Cs kmcYn {io.kpIpamc \mbcmWv. kmaqlntIma\n\v apXqw \In A`nhrnbpsS ]pXnb N{Ihmf tXSp \mb kokv skmsskn Cv \mbv A`nam\n\p hI \Ip GI kmaqlnI Im shbv]mbn Ahtijnpp. {io.Nn kzman, {io. \mcmbWKpcp apXemb kmaqlnI ]cnjvImfpw almmKmn Phlem s\lvdp apXemb tZiob t\Xmfpw kao]Imev \mbmcpsS kmaqlnINnmKXnsb cq]sSppXn Imcyamb kzm[o\w sNepnbnpsv A]w Nnnm \apv t_mysSmw. kzX{ykacw AYhm tZiob {]m\hpambn _s k.kn.ic \mbsctmsebp Fa {]Xn`mimenIsf `mcXn\p kw`mh\ sNphm IgnpshXn \mb kaqln\v \ymbambpw A`nam\nphm hIbpv. amdn hcp kmaqlnI, kmnI, cmjv{Sob kmlNcy \pkrXambn NSpeXtbmsS NphSp shp Hcp \mb kaqlw Cv tIcfnepw adp\mSpIfnepw kPohamsWXv Fm \mbmpw A`nam\n\p hI \Ipp. cmjv{Sobamb sIp]mSpIfm hnLSnsv XfpsS iamb {]XnIcWtijn \mbm \jvSsSpntbm F kwibw Nne Dbnppshnepw ImemImefn kwib \nhrn \Ipw hw {]XnIcnphm \mbmp Ignnps Imcyn kwiban. kmaqlnI cwKv kzXknamb IgnhpIfm ]nSnp \np \mbm, BymnI cwKv {io. Nn kzmanbpsS Imetijw A\p`hnp iq\yXsb XcWw sNm\mImsX IpgbpIbmsWv kapZmbmNmcy {io.ap ]\m`\p tijap ImeLw kqNnnp p. kmaqlncwKv _{i\mbncppshnepw \mbmcpsS BymntIma\w eyam n kapZmbmNmcy \Inb am\ntisf A\phnpXn \mbm hnPbnpthm F Nn CcpWn hfsc {]kamWv. DZmlcWn\v, t{Xfnse X{nm\w PmXn{_mW\p am{Xw AhImisXmsW Aimkv{Xob hmZs \mb kokv skmssknbpsS Nne t\Xmm CSmev ]nmnbncpXmbn ]{Xhm I kqNnnpI Dmbn. Fm, \mb kokv skmssknbpsS m]I\pw kapZmbmNmcy\pamb {io. ap ]\m` Xs PohnXkvacWIfn A[xIrtXmmcWw skmssknbpsS ISaIfnsemmsWpw AXn\pthn kapZmbw {]bXv\nWsapw hyamppv. t{X{]thi\n\pw AbntmmS\n\pambp kacfpsS IY Atlw ]dhkm\nnpXv Xmsg \Ip hcnItfmsSbmWv.

...AhnSps (t{Xfnse) AkaXzfpw lnpfnse hn`mKobXbpw ]gb t]mse \ne\nm {_mWcpsS kzmhpw A{_mWcpsS auVyhpw Cpw klmbnp sImncnpp.

{io. ap ]\m`s Cu hmpI Ac\qmn\v tijw Cpw Acw {]Xn icnbmWv. t{XmNmckw_ambn tIcfn \ne\np AgnaXnIv cv ImcW am{XamWpXv. Ghpw {][m\ambn A{_mWcpsS auVyw ]ns {_mWs kzmX. sXmgnembn A[x]Xnntn hmepw X{w ssIhnSns at\m`mhw ASp Imepmb NIfn {]Xn^enncpXv \mw {intXmWv. t{Xmcm[\sb hn{Klmcm[\sbv hnfnv AhnizmkfpsS ]nIbnepsSpn XnckvIcnpI \mbmsc kw_nnStmfw F{Xam{Xw A`nImayamWv? sslhsa NqSn ISp Ibdn AhnsS \ne\np PmXn{_mWs ta[mhnXzn\p kzw BymnIXsb ASnbd shpXv \mbmcpsS ]mccyn\p tNcp {]hnbmtWm? \mbmv kzXknamb Hcp BymnI ]mccyaptm? {_mtWXcamb \mbmcpsS BymnI ]mccyns ImXsemWv?

2.

\mbmcpsS khntijXI

(a) \mbmcpsS Ncn{X]camb thcpI

\mbmcpsS ]mccyns thcpI tXSptm Cv \mw FntcpXv ]ckv]c hncpfmb Dulmt]mlfnemWv. B[nImcnIamb ]T\sfmpw Xs \mbmcpsS Ncn{Xsn e`ya. ]mmXyscgpXnqnb A_k]fpw Ahv \mS kmbnp am \Inb A\p_fpw BWv Cs\neqsS {]NcnpXv. \mb Ncn{Xw kw_n Xangv tcJI ]T\hnt[bammXn\m {_mWm[n]Xyw h HXv]v \qmpI apXep tIcfNcn{Xw am{Xw Cv B[nImcnIambn e`yambnpp. hccpNnbpw Bcy`S\pw lcnZ\pw tKmhnkzmanbpw Hs Pohnncp ImeLs Ccp \qmpIfmbn hntijnnsSpXv, XangIns `mKambncp Ames tIcfs aXnbmb ]T\v hnt[bammXp sImmWv. n\nbpsS ae_m Xocsnbp ]cmaiw {InkvXphn\p apv Xs ae_m \mbmcpsS tZiambn Adnbsncpp F kqN\ \Ipp. n\nbpsS ]cmais ap hn[nepw hymJym\nsSpXn\m \mbsc ]Zns Ime\nbw GXmv AhyamsWv ]dbmw. \mbsc PmXn\mans DhImew GXp Xsbmbmepw, Hmw tNckm{amPyImew AYhm AXn\pw apv kwLImew apX Xs cmPymcJymXn t\Snbncp Hcp P\XXn tIcfn \nehnencppshv ]mmXybm{XnIcpsS tcJIfn \npw \nwibw a\nemmw. {_mWm[n]Xyn\p apv Xs ssP\_paXfpw ]nIfpw ImhpIfpw IfcnIfpw Ipffpw \nd Hcp {ZmhnUtemIw tIcfs kamnbncppshp IcpXpXn\pw [mcmfw sXfnhpIfpv. As\bp Hcp P\XXn Ccp\qmpIfpsS krjvSnbmIpI km[yatm? Cu ]menemWv \mbmcpsS kzXzw tXSnbp Cu At\zjWw Bcw`npXv. \mbcpsS kzXzw GsXms LSIfm \nbnsSpp? Cu LSI {]Xn^enp {]mNo\ kwkvImcsfn Cv e`yambncnp hkvXpXIsfmWv? 1. t]mcmfn ]mccyw
3

\mbmcpsS Ncn{Xnse Ghpw {]knamb khntijX Ah Irjnbpw bphpw sXmgnemnbncpp FXmWv. tbmmm `qanbpsS DSaIfmbXn ApXn\ hImian. DX\mb \mb tbmmhns tcJmNn{Xw Itamsbkns t]mpKokv Imhyn e`yamIpXv {itbamWv.2
By the proud Nayres the noble rank is claim'd The toils of culture and of art they scorn The warrior's plumes their haughty brows adorn The shining falchion brandish'd in the right Their left arm wields the target in the fight Of danger scornful, ever arm'd they stand Around the king, a stern barbarian band

]Xns\mmw \qmnse tNctNmf bpfn \mbmcpsS Nmth ]SI hln \nkvXpeamb ]v Ncn{XImcm tcJsSpnbnpv. ae_mdnse Ahkm\ ]pcpj{]Pbpw acnXn ]noSmWv X\nv AhnsS Imep Ipm IgnsXv IptempwKtNmf tcJsSpnb Hcp enJnXw ae_mdnsehnsStbm DXmbn hmbntXmpp. 2. \mK]qP ]SbmfnIfmb \mbmcpsS BNmc]chpw Bob]chpamb Ghpw {][m\ khntijX Ifnsemv \mKmcm[\bmWv. \mKmcm[\sb Cgp \Sp k]qPbmbn eLqIcnp hymJym\w ]e ]WvUnXmcpw \SnmWpp. Adnbm hnjbsfn A`n{]mbw ]dbptm hpXocp A_amWv As\bp hymJym\. \mbcpsS kzXzns ASnthcv kmhpIfnemsWXn\m Cu hnjbsn ]noSv hniZambn N sNmsav IcpXpp. 3. acpambw ]n. _meIrjvWtat\ms amXrZmb{Iahpw KmlnILS\bpw: ae_mdnse \mb XdhmSpIsfnbp Hcp ]T\w3 F BwKteb {]_n \mb kapZmbns B[nImcnIamb Hcp kmaqlnI Nn{Xw hniZambn N sNsSppv. kw{Klns BZy JWvUnI \mbmcpsS ]e khntijXIfntepw shfnw hoipXmWv.
... The system of matrilineal consanguinity and descent practiced by the Nairs was remarkable for its complex kinship organization and joint family set up, and the unique status social and economic it afforded to the women of the community. Among the critical features of this system were: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The mode of tracing descent and kin-ties along the line of ancestress The holistic and ritually-significant quasi-corporate body, called taravad The relative latitude extended to women in both marriage and termination of marriage The duolocal residence and the visiting husband system The complex system of rights of ownership, division and transmission of family landed property conferred upon descendants and The existence of a number of descent groups, called tavazhis, headed by female descendants and forming sub-clans sometimes as large as one hundred members all living together in a taravad house

2 3

P.91, The Lusiad, by Lus de Cames, The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Lusiad Matrilini and Domestic Morphology: A Study of the Nair Taravads of Malabar, Balakrishnamenon, P., School of Architecture, McGill University, Montreal, Aug 1998

acpambw, A\nch\neqsSbp ]nXpSmhImiw IqSmsX apdsv, apdsdp Fns\bp sshhmlnIcoXnIfpw Dsmncpp. \mbmcpsS CSbn am{Xa, ap ]e t]mcmfnhfnepw CtX coXnbnep amXrZmbacpamb ]nXpS \nehnencp Xmbn Ncn{XtcJIfn \npw a\nemmw. DZmlcWn\v, KuXa_p\pw ]nXmhmb iptmZ\\pw XfpsS As]fpsS aIsf (apdsv) bmWv hnhmlw IgnsX hkvXpX _utcJIfn sXfnbppv. 4. Ifcnbpw Imhpw Ipfhpw Imhv, Ifcn, Ipfw Ch \mbcpsS PohnXn\v Hgnp IqSm\mhm ktXfmbncpp. Imhv ksbpw `KhXnsbbpw IpSnsImp. IfcnI cmbncpp sabv Ifcn ka{Kamb tbmKhymbma]XnIfpw Bcp ]Xns\ShpIfpw ]Tnntm \mbcpsS Fgp pIfcn Adnhns Btbm[\n\v thZnbmbn. ISppcpn {io. hmkptZhKpcpfpsS {Kn Ifcnbns khntijX hyamphm tUm.tlmhmUv doUns\ (_n._n.kn) DcnncnpXv {itbamWv. \nfpsS Ifcnbv \nkvXpeamWv. GjybpsS CXc`mKfnse Btbm[\IeIsfmpw C{Xam{Xw ka{Ka. PqtUm coXnbn {]XntbmKnsb \netv hensdnmWv XIpI, Icmsbn Xo ]mdp XmU\fmepw. \nnXv cpapv. Bbp[ {]tbmK thsdbpw. C\n Bbp[ CmsX hm Anaamb shdpw ssI {]tbmKhpw ]cpp]nbm imkv{Xobamb NnInmcoXnbpw Ifcnbnepv.4 Ipehpw IpetZhnbpw amXrZmbns aqem[mcambn \nesImp. Xm{nImcm[\ \mbmcpsS BymnIk]cybpsS Ahn`mPy LSIambncpp. `{ZImfnbpw ]nXrfpw kfpw \mbmcpsS ImhpIfn A\p{KlminpItfmsS ]pencp Hcp ]gb Imew \mbmpmbncpXmbn \ymbambpw A\pam\nmw. alnjmkpcan\nbmb `{ZImfn \mbcpsS kzXzns Ghpw Dzeamb {]XoIamWv. \mbcpsS _unIhpw BymnI hpamb ]mcns Ghpw \mWw sI DZmlcWamWv XfpsS IpetZhnamsc \qXncnamv hnpsImSp Zb\ob Ah. Xan \mnse sNnnam Cpw XfpsS tImhnepIfn `{ZImfnv kzbw ]qP sNptm \mWw sI \mbmscbmWv `{ZImfn Cv tIcfn ImWpXv. IpetZhnsb {_mWs I]SX{n\p hnp sImSpm Cughpw `{ZImfnbpsS apn A`nam\tmSv \Sphp\nhn \nm hIbpv. X{w Adnbm X{namcpsS apn ssIpnfpambn \nv {]kmZw hmp \mb ]ip`mham \]pwkIamWv. 5. shfnmSv shfnmSns\ Xm{nImcm[\bpsS aqn`mhsav hntijnnmw. hnfnm hnfn tIpsav \mb hnizkn `{ZImfnbpsS hmv shfn]mSpw As\bp shfn]mSns DSa shfnmsSpw Adnbsp. shfn, shw apXembh `KhXnbpsS {]ImiXzmIamb AhbpsS {]Xn^e\satmWw kaqln {]NenXamb hmpIfmWv. ssZhoI insb AamWv. shp\mSv XncpammwIpnse `KhXnbpsS \mSmWv. shw FXpw AXpt]mse `KhXnbpsS eamWv. Imhnsbpw IfcnbpsSbpw Ahn`mPy LSIambncp shfnmSv `KhXnamsc {_mW ssItXp apX \mtimpJambn.
4

ISppcpn {io. hmkptZhKpcp, Ifcnbv, Un.kn._pvkv, (2000) ]pdw 14 .

5

Imhpw Ifcnbpw hmfpw ssItamiw htXmsS shfn]mSpw shfnmSpw `qapJp \npXs A{]Xyambn. tZhlnXw Adnbm tZh{]iv\w F I]SkmtXnItPymXnjw {_mW X{nam ]Icw \Smn. 6. IYIfnbpsS Bhn`mhw IYIfn, Imhpw Ifcnbpw tNv Pw \Inb \mbmcpsS X\Xp IebmWv. \mb \Sphp\nhp \nncp ]gbImens kw`mh\bmWv {]mNo\IeIfpsS Bmsf sbms kmIambn Bhmlnp NSpeXbm Cu kwKoXm`n\b\r Ie. IfcnbpsS NSpeXbpw kwKoXns Xmfacfpw \mbmcpsS BymnI]mccyhpw ktfnp IYIfn inhXmWvUhns Kmw`ocyam IebmWv. cma\mw, IrjvW\mw, IqSnbmw, AjvS]Zn, apSntbv (ZmcpIh[w), Xobmv, sXw, ]SbWn ChbpsSsbms kwKoX\rA`n\b Iemwisf IfcnbpsS NphSpshbv]pIfpambn CgtNv ]Xns\mw \qmnt\mSSpv cq]w sImv cmPmmmcm t]mjnnsv {]Nmcn h IebmWv IYIfn. {Xn]mtc ]otT ihinhlrZnkvtachZ\mw F hnsSp alnjan\nbmb `{ZImfnbpsS kucyhpw kuc`yhpam Ie. 7. Nmth ]mccyw \mbmcpsS ]ucpjns, t]mcmfpsS, IpetZhnbmb `{ZImfnbpsS... \mbmcpsS CXnlmknse Ghpw tim`mbam\Zriyw XfpsS `qanpw kzXzn\pw thn, In sNobm IpetZhXbmb `{ZImfnsb Xntev Bhmlnv ]Spt]mb NmthdpIfmWv. IocWnbmsX s\bvtmdqn Nnqcw Nmn Aam bm{Xbmnb Hcnepw Xncnp hnnm \mbmcpsS B_enbmWv X{w aqpIpnb Cmepw sISmhnfmbn \np `KhXnbpsS ssNX\yns ASnd. cmPcmPtNmfs {]]u{X IptempwK tNmfs hmgvNbpsS ]Xnmemw hjnse Xangv enJnXns BwKe]cn`mj ae_mdnse \mbm5 F {Kns Ahkm\w tNncnpXv {inpI.
It is interesting evidence of the old martial spirit of the Nayars:According to an inscription of the 14th year of his reign (= A.D. 1083-1084) the Chola King Kulottunga-I. conquered Kudamalai-ndu i.e. western hill country (Malabar) whose warriors, the ancestors of the Nayars of the present day, perished to the last man in defending their independence South Indian Inscriptions, Vol.III, p.130. (Translation of the 27th line of the inscription at Tirukkazhukundram) While all the heroes (chavers) in the Western hill-country (Kudamalai-ndu) ascended voluntarily to heaven ... etc

`mkvIcchnh aqma Xs Nmth ssk\ytmsSmw {InkvXp hjw 1082 t]mcmSn acnXmWv apIfnse DcWnv B[mcamb kw`hw. Asb A`n[m\w Cv t]cns\mw kmh{XnIambn D]tbmKnemWv. aqecq]n `KhXnbpsS Cu A`n[m\w ]S\mb kv{XoIfpsS, B_enp kcmb asf {]khn AamcpsS m\tcmbncpp. Imens Ipsmgpn \mbcpsS ]ucpjw t]mse A]ZhnbpsS Kuchpw \jvSambncnpXv {]IrXnbpsS, almambbpsS eoe Xs. 8. ]nXr_en
5

F.Fawcett, Nayars of Malabar, page 322

6

\mb Ipens X\Xmb BNmcfn kmcm[\ t]mse {][m\amWv ]nXrfpsS Bcm[\. IpetZhnamcpw tbmKoizcmcpw ]nXrfnse apJycmb Aamcpw Amhmcpw Xs. \mbmcpsS BNmcm\pjvTm\ t\mnbm Ahpn ImXembn \npXv Pohs A\izcXbnep ASnbpd hnizmkamWv. acWw F kwKXn XfpsS AkvXnXz s _m[np Hcp kw`hambn \mbm Incpn. P\\w apX acWw hscbpw acWw apX P\\w hscbpw PohnXs `qanbnepw N{\nepw cp Lfmbn hon, Poh\v \nXyX I]n ]mccyamWv \mbmcptSXv. \mb \izcamb \mat[bn hnizknncp n FXn\memWv \mbmcpsS Ncn{XtcJIfpw ]pcmX\ \mamhenIfpw apw e`yamXv. ISIamkn\pw ISIamknse Idphmhn\pw tIcfnep {]m[m\yw \mK ]mccynsbpw Xm{nImcm[\bpsSbpw kqN\bmWv. Iiy]s `qansbv IcpXsSp Imivaocnse {]knamb ImtmSI\mKhwins t]cns Dhw ISIw cminbnse k\{Xn (Bbneyw) \nmIpp. ISIw amknse \mK]anbpw Bbney nse Idphmhpw \mKv Ghpw {][m\s hntijZnhkfmIpp. hrnI amknse NXpinbpw (\cINXpinbpw) Idphmhpw (aqeZo]mhen) Xpey{]m[m\yw sImv {itbamWv.

3.

\mbcpw \mKcpw

\mbcpw \mKcpw Xnep _w Cv Dulmt]mlfnsemXpn \npIbmWv. HutZymKnhpw B[nImcnIhpamb Hcp AhtemI\w hmbnphm Cphsc Cu teJI\p Ignnn. NnkzmanI {]mNo\aebmfsa Xs {Kn {_mWta[mhnXzhpw AhcpsS AhImifpw m]npXn\pthn sIna I]SamlmyDXv]n IYIsfbmsI \JinJmw Dqe\w sNpXv Bcnepw tcmaljw DfhmpXmWv. ]cipcmas\ Icphmn sIna IYmIY\ thtZm]\njpfpsSbpw BZifpsS bpw tjmUikwkvImcfpsSbpw hop ]dbp PmXn{_mW\pw tkhIcpw ]penbn cp kzmX, A\oXn \oNXzw Fnhv hyamb sXfnhv \Ipp. CcmpIfpsS aqnaZv `mhamb PmXn{_mW tIcfNcn{XsbmsIs tIcfnse P\]Z fpsS kamb _ussP\]mccysf hnjen]vXamb sFXnlyfn apnsmp IbmWpmbXv. NnkzmanIfpsS AknKvamb \ncmIcWn\p tijhpw tIcfn tIctfm]nbpw tIcfamlmyhpw Dcnp hnZzmm DsXmWv B[p\nI aebmfns ssZ\yX. ]cipcmas\ Dcnv Cpw PmXn{_mW t{Xsfbpw X{hnZysbbpw aeoakamp timN\obXp apn NnkzmanIfpsS _unI BymnI kp AhImiw `mhnp \mb kaqlw t\mpIpnIfmbn \ne sImpp. Cu teJ\smsSmw A\p_ambn {io.NnkzmanIfpsS {]mNo\aebmfw F {Kns arZpkwkvIcWw6 tNncnpXv Fm \mbmcpw hmbntXmWv. {io.NnkzmanI Amev e`yambncp ]pcmWkw_amb hkvXpXIsf PmXn {_mW hngn aqVXzns ad\on AhXcnnpIbpw \mb F h\maw \mI F ]Zns cq]mcWamsWv hmZnpIbpw Dmbn. \mbcpw \mKcpw Xnep sFXnlmknI _w kw_n B[p\nIamb ]T\KthjWfpsS IsepI AYhm sXfnhpI Atln\v e`yambncpn. {_mWta[mhnXzns _unIamb hngpv Npap \mb kaqlw Ign Hcp \qmntesdmeambn ]pdp hp sImncnp sXfnhpIv t\sc ]pdw Xncnp \npIbpamWv.
6

http://hinduebooks.blogspot.com, F ssh_vsskn kuP\yambn e`yamnb {Kw {]mNo\aebmfw

7

\mb \mKcpsS kzXzw \jvSsSm ]nKman

hfsc hnjaw ]nSn Hcp BapJamWv ChnsS AhiyambncnpXv. `mcXob Ncn{Xns AhtemI\neqsS \mKhwins aebmf tZinse Bhn`mhns kwn]vXamb Hcp tcJmNn{Xw B[nImcnIambn \Iphm {ianpIbmWv. Dulmt]ml]Spfmb \mnse Ncn{XImcmsc bmsXmcp ImcWhimepw A\pIcncpsX _unIhpw BymnI hpamb A`nemjw BZyw Xs hyams.
1.

{ZmhnUamIp `mcXw A[n\nthins kXyw

hkpss[hIpSpw_Iw Fv B]vXhmIyw Dcnphs CcmIfnsemmWv CSpnb, PqKp]vkmhlamb kztZim`nam\w. BZansbpw lubpsSbpw lnpXzhpw GZ tXmns Cy tahnemkhpw KthjWw sNp Hcp A`ykvXsslhkaqlw Bcym[n\nthiw \ntj[nphm _sSpXv Cs\ns ]e Xefnepw ImWmhp tImamfnfnsemmWv. BZnam\hs\ lnpXzns taen AWnbnm\pw Ahs Bcyhwi]ndhn CybnemsWv m]nm\pap KthjWXzc- ]cipcma IYIfpm nb ]mccyns Cs Ah AXmWv. B{^nbnse GtXm HcbpsS a temIamsI ]cXmWv Cs am\hkaqlw Fv B[p\nIP\nXIimkv{Xw ]dbp tm, A[n\nthistbmv Fn\v sshysSWw?

a[y]uckvXytZiw : BZn{ZmhnU`qan
a[y[cWymgnbpsS Ing IcIfnepw satkmsmmanbbnepamWv \mK]mccyw {In.ap. Ambncmamn\Spv \mnsXv B[p\nI KthjWfneqsS Isnbnpv. kptadn b \mKcnIX Fv {]knamb Cu P\]Zhpw {Iov, CuPn]vv apXemb tZifnse P\ ]Zfpw aqe{ZmhnU ]mccyns DdhnSfmbncppshp IcpXm \ymbapv. `mcXns ]ntamc`mKp \npw ]Snmtdmv AXn]pcmX\Imev ]emb\w sNbvXhcpw (Alpine) AmZnb\pIfpw (Long headed Mediterranean or Dravidian) bq{^okvssS{Knkv \ZnIfpsS IcIfn Hcpanv hkv] CmsX cq]w \IsXmWv kptadnb ]mccyw. AmZnb\pIfpsS Hcp `mKw sskh\mKcnIXbpsS kph Imev `mcXnsepIbpw kqcys\ ]qPnp CzmIphwiambn AdnbsSpIbpw sNbvXp. aqe]Zamb Hyksos s Aw ae\ncIfpsS Xehm (\Km[n] \mK) FmbncpncnWw Fv DulnsSpp. `mcXnse enOhnI, imIy apXemb ]e \mKP\]Zfpw Chcm m]nshbmsWv IcpXsSpp. AmZnb\pIfpsS asmcp hn`mKw CuPn]vn {]thinXmbpw IcpXsSpp. amXrZmb{Iaw a[y[cWymgn {]tZiamsI ]pcmX\Imev \ne\nncppshXn\v [mcmfw sXfnhpI e`yamWv. DZmlcWn\v C{ktb kmdmbpsS aI BsW hkvXpX \h hntbmKn \mKmscnbp {Kn kqNnnpp. CuPn]vnse acpambns \ne\n]ns\nbp ]WvUn XmhtemI\w {inpI. Professor Mitteis confirms that Egypt was immemmorialy a land of matrilineal descent, a usage which continued in Christian times until the seventh century. There the maternal uncle is often named as important. The father of the mother was more important than the mans own father. In consequenec there were no illegitimate children in Egypt, a child born out of wedlock enjoying the same rights as one born in marriage. All children belonged to the mother. The Nomes or

primitive totem clans of which the nation was formed were maternal clans or motherhoods and their leadership was transmitted through mother.7 acpambhpw amXrZmbhpambn _s [mcmfw sXfnhpI {Ionepw e`yambnpv. Dr. N. Viyogi quotes Briffoult Robert: The marvellous remains of Crete provide eloquent testimony to the matriarchal character of Cretan society. The enormance predominance of female over males figures is without parallel. Cretan divinities are almost exclusively feminine.. AmhmcmWv {Ion IpnIsf hfnbncpsX Imcyw hfsc {itbamWv. cmambWw aqecq]n tImke]q{Xnbmb Iukeysb ktlmZc AYhm apdsdp\mb ZicY hnhmlw IgnpXv kqNnnpXmbn tcJsSpnmWpp. tImkense dmWnv Asn Iukeysbv t]scs\ hcmw? ZicY hnhmlneqsS cmPmhmb apdsdp \mWv. {io]Xnse ZnWmXycmb CzmIphwihpw amXrZmb{Iaw A\phnncp Xmbn tcJI kqNnnpp. The family was of a good Kshatriya stock from the North. They married cousins like the ancient Ikshvakus. They very likely had migrated to the South in the imperial days of Satavahanas when the latter reached the United Province and Bihar (Dr KP Jayaswal) Ipew, KWw, kwLw Cs\ Dtcmcw hepXmb IqmbvabpsS ASnm\n Dfhmb dn_vfn kaqlfmWv ]pcmX\`mcXn kmaqlyhpw cmjv{Sobhpamb kaqlLS\v ImXembncpsXv ]T\ kqNnnpp. \mKhwiP Htc kabw tbmmfpw IjIcpw (AYhm ap sXmgn sNbvXncp kaql) kn]mccyw ]penbncp hcpw Bbncpp. Vajji Gana was constituted of tribe of herds-men. Similarly the Sakya Gana of Kapila-Vastu which gave birth to the great Buddha, the founder of Buddhist religion, was a Sangha of cultivators. Suddhodana, the father of Buddha, king of Sakya clan himself used to plough his own fields. Similarly Koliya Gana of Rama Gama belonging to the maternal grandfather of Buddha was a Gana of weavers... aucyImep \ne\n kwLsfn IuSney\pw {Kov Ncn{XImcmcpw tcJsSpnbn pv. hmikvt{Xm]PohnI Fdnbs tbmmfpsS kaqlw Xfnse cmPmhns\ P\m[n]XycoXnbn, ]pcmX\ tIcfnse s]cpamfhtcm[w t]mse sXcsSpncpp. cmPi_vtZm]PohnIfnse Ipesfmw Xs cmP]Zhn AhImisSp amSn kaqlambn cppshv ]dbmw. enOhn, hn, a, a{Z, IpIpc, Ipcp, ]mme Chsbms cmPkwL fmbncpXmbn _n.kn.tem NmWIys\ Dcnp m]npp. Ipefmbncpp cmjv{Sobm[n Imcns kz`mhw \nbnncpXv. T.W.Rhys Davids observes based on his study of the Jatakas8: They (Sakya mass) held it degradation, to which only dire misfortune would drive them, to work for hire. They were proud of their standing, their family and their village. And they were governed by headman of their own class and village very probably selected by themselves in accordance with their customs and ideals sXmgnepI amdn amdn kzoIcnncp tbmmfpsS CSbn Abnw A\yambncpp. _ps BKa\tmsS ]ptcmlnXkrjvSamb NmXphWyw XnckvIcnsp. KwK, bap\, apXemb \ZnI ISen ebnv HmIpXp t]mse {_mW\pw {Xnb\pw sshiy\pw iq{Z\pw _ukwLn HmIpXmbn _p tLmjnp. sskh\mKcnIX J\\ neqsS shfnsSpXn\p apv Xs _utcJIsf Bkv]Zamn ]T\w \Snb Kthj
7 8

Naval Viyogi, p.98. Nagas: Their Origin and History, DK Publishers 2002 Dr. Naval Viyogi, p.136
9

I `mcXn sshZntIXcamb DXkwkvIrXn \nen\nncpXmbn \nKa\w sNbvXncpp. Fm {_mWcN\Isf Bkv]Zambn am{Xw ]T\w \Snbhv sshZntIXcamb Hpw `mcXn ImWphm Ignn. sskh\mKcnIXbpw XpSv shfns \nch[n J\\ KthjW]camb hkvXpXIfpw BtcyXcamb Hcp ]pcmX\kwkvIrXn \nehnencppsh hkvXpXsb A\ntj[yamn. Cu \mKkwkvIrXnv Bcykm h A]Nbw ImcWamWv Cv \mbmsctmsebp \nch[n KWv kzXzw \jvSambncnpXv. imIyhwiPcpsS _utcJIfn ZriyamIp Nn{Xhpambn XmcXaysSpptm tIcf n \ne\n kaqlLS\bpambn kq kmZriyw A\p`hsSpp. kmcm[\bpsS Imcyn tIcfnse \mbmcpsS Xo{hX asmcnSpw Xs Ncn{Xn Zriya. CXn\p ImcWw tIcfnse \mKkwLw AXn]pcmX\Imep Xs t\m Xmgzcbn \ntm (t\hm ]mccyw) at[yjybn \nv IS amtam tIcfnsentp FXmWv. {Iov Zzo]nse \mKcnIXv \miw Ipdn `qNe\hpw kp\manbpw DmbXv {In.ap. 1500amnemsWv Ncn{XImcm Dulnpp. \mbcpsS tIcfnse BKa\w kw_nv kwibmXoXamb Hcp \nKa\w km[ya. IS hgn {Ion \npw hhcpmImw. KpPdmn \npw sImWXocw hgn h `mhcp mImw. \mw Adnbm clky ]eXpw tIcfXocv ISseSpv t]mbnpmImw. {ioaqehmkw ]pcmX\tcJIfneqsS am{Xw \mw Adnbp eamsWtm? Cs Ip\mSv, ]gbImes ]m\ZnbpsS ]X\ew apkncnkv t]mse hensbmcp XpdapJambncpp shv Ncn{XImcm IcpXpp. ]pcmX\ tcJIfnse s\n, ]bpw aWnaebpw Hp tNcp \mnSbmsWv Ncn{XImcm knmnpp. \mbmtcm {_mWtcm Bcymtcm Hpw Xs `mcXnse BZnhmknIfs \nKa\ nemWv B[p\nI ]T\ Fn \npXv. at[yjybpsS hnhn[`mKfnepw {Iov Zzo]nepw Imkv]nb ISens IcIfnepw Cdm\nepambn {ZmhnUP\]Z \nehnencpp shv ]T\ sXfnbnpp. Cu {ZmhnU P\]Zfns] GtXm Hcp imJbmWv lcmtamlRvsPZmtcm AYhm knpkckzXn kwkvImcn\v ({In.ap 2500 - 3500) Pw \InbXv. I]ne\pw Imiy]\pw Ej`tZh\psams knpkckzXnbpsS IcIfnse P\]Zs \bn cmPjnamtcm knmtcm BsWv IcpXphm \ymbapv. {]mIrXnI amb ImcWfmtem (`qNe\w, kckzXnbpsS hc) Bcym[n\nthimtem Hcp ]s {]mIrXnIamb ImcWfm ]X\w t\cnSp kmlNcyn Dmb BcymKa\n Cu kwkvImcw \inpIbpw Bcym[n]Xyw kwPmXamIpIbpw sNbvXncnmw. {io_p\p app Ncn{XamsI Dulmt]mlPSneamIbm, Xdnp ]dbpXn Aan. Cv e`yamb sXfnhpIfpsS ASnm\n aphn[n IqSmsX Hcp hynv Fm Ignbp \nKa\sasv kqNnnpI am{XamWv Fs eyw. `mcXNcn{Xnse tkmackw IqSnv a{w P]nv tlmaw sNp Antlm{Xnsb shfp {_mW djybnsehnsStbm \npw ]mao]oT`qan ISphhcmsWv DulnsSpp. tkmackw \Inbncp sNSn Cv ]maotZiv Issnpv. IpXncIfpw a{w ]nSnp tkmackhpambn BgnIqn `mcXn cknp Ignbsh Bcym t\cn Ghpw henb Zpcns t]cmWv ]cipcmas\v ]nmev AdnbsXv.

]mckv cma\pw ]cipcma\pw bYm cmas IY

Imhocys\tmsebp Bcy{]`pm ]nSnp ]dnbpw AcmPIXzhpw Agnphn Bcymhntev cmasXmcp {ZmhnUm[n\nthiw Dmbn. Cdm\n \npw h Cu {ZmhnU\mKtk\bpsS A[n]\mb ]mckv cmas\bmWv ]nme {_mWNcn{Xw ]cip
10

cma\mbn, Bcy{_mW\mbn amtamZokm apnbXv. AX hkvXpX Fn, Bcy {_mW\pw Bcy{Xnb\pw i{XpX DmIp kmlNcyw krjvSnm IYmIY\s B{ibntn hcpw. Bcy{Xnbsc Ccp]smp {]mhiyw sImpapSnv Antlm{Xw NhpnsaXnv `mcXn \mKmcpsS B[n]Xyw ]p\xm]n kIpePmX\mWv cma. Xine apX Xmtgmv kucmjv{SXocw hscbpw XpSv `rKpIw apX klym{ZnbpsS ]miznse A]cmIhpw sImWhpw ae_mdpw hsc Cu \mKcmas\nbp sFXnly fm \ndp\npp. \ZbpsS Icbn `rKpIw Bm\ambn hmW alm_en bpsS \mKAkpcIpes Bcym NXnbneqsS IogvsSpnbXn\p tijambncnWw `mhIpens Hcp \Sp\mbI ]mckv tZiv \npw `mcXntev hXv.

aebmfhpw alm_enbpw
alm_enbpsS Imew kw_n sFXnlyw Imncnbntem amthencbntem atm cmPmhmbncp amthenbpsS ImesnbmsWv ]ecpw hymJym\np ImWpIbpmbn. Cu hymJym\w icnbsv tPymXnximkv{X]camb bpnbm \apv a\nemmw. Nn amknse XncpthmWw hma\Pbnbmbn BtLmjnp tIcf]mccyn\v kwLIme tmfsanepw ]gapv. kqcy Xep apIfnsep cp ZnhkfmWv Dbn\nv sXv Htc imkv{Xbpnbm BtLmjn\p sXcsSpsXv. Ch cpw Xs \mK]mccyhpambn _shbmWv. Nnamknse \ngenm Znhkw HmWhpw CShamknse \ngenm Znhkw ]cipcmaPbnbmbpw tIcfn BtLmjns Spp. Cu BtLmjfpsS Dhw Dbn\nv sXmsWXn kwibn\v AhImian. ImcWw kqcy \ngenm Znhk \IpI Amwiw Ab\tcJv (kqcy]ca{Imn 240) sXv AYhm ]ca{Imntbm Amwiw Ipdncnptm am{XamWv. `mhIpew \n `rKpIpw (Amwiw 2141hSv, tcJmwiw 7301, Dbn\nv GXmv Hcp \mgnI ]Snmdvv) \ZbpsS Icbnse ]pWyXofnepamWv Cuhn[ BNmcmtLmjfpsS ]ndhnsbv IcpXnbm {In.ap Bbncmamnse BtLmj fpsS KWnXw Xmsg \Ipw {]ImcamWv. ew: `rKpIw 21N41, 73E01 (\Z) {In.ap. Bbncmamv (BC 1000), CE () 999 Pq 8 ]cipcmaPbn, \ncb\chn anYp\w 830. Cu XobXn Hcp ImcWhimepw sshimJamknse ]cipcmaPbn BIbn. `rKpIv \ngenm Cu Znhkw BjmVamknemWv. CXn\p ImcWw ]cipcmaPbn sX tZiv Imemcn DhnpshXmImw. Nnamknse XncpthmWw Pqsse 28, \ncb\chn 131 `m{Z]ZipZzmZin BImw. {In.ap. Bbncmamn\p tijw \Sn hXmIWsap chnbpsS nXn sImv Dulnmw. {In.ap. Bbncmamv (BC 1000), CE () 999 G{]n 29 ]cipcmaPbn, \ncb\chn anYp\w 440. Cu XobXnv sshimJamknse ]cipcmaPbntbm km[yX tPyjvTamk nemWv. ]cipcmaPbn sX tZiv {In.ap. Bbncmamn \ngenm Zn\w F bpntbmsS km[yambncpn. Nnamknse XncpthmWw sk]vw_ 05, \ncb\chn 169 `m{Z]ZipZzmZin BImw Fm Nnamknse XncpthmWhpw IqSn BIm km[yXbn. {In.ap. Bbncmamn hma\Pbn tPymXnximkv{X]camb bpn A\pkcnv tIcfn km[yambncpn.

ew: N{ahw 10N51, 75E45 (`cXpg)

11

Cu cp eImesshcpyv e`yamIp hymJym\w, hma\Pbn BtLmjw `rKpIv Bcw`nXpw ]cipcmaPbn tIcfnemcw`nXmsWXpw BIpp. Cu kmlNcyn alm_ensb kw_n sFXnly \ZbpsS {]mfn ]ndhnsb SpXmsWv A\pam\nmw.

\mKhwihpw Akpcmcpw
am\hNcn{Xnse Hcp]s Ghpw henb _unIamb Ir{Xnaw `mcXNcn{XnsegpXn ts BcyhwiKmYbmWv. sXmen Idp \mKs\ {_mW\mnbpw {Xnb\mnbpw \Snb cmjv{Sob D]Pm]fpw hnNn{XhXvIcns hwimhenIfpw ISsaSpv Iw tN ImeKW\bpw sImp \ndXmWv ]pcmW. kXys Fmehpw Hfnp shm\mImXp sImv ASp Imepmb ]T\fneqsS ]e hkvXpXIfpw ]pdp hnpv. `mcXNcn{Xw BsIs \mKhwiNcn{XamsWv Xmsg \Inbncnp Ncn{XhkvXpXI kqNnnpp. IrjvWssZz]mb\hymk hncNnXamb alm`mcXns BZy AXp Aymb \mK hwiIY ]dbphbmWv. {ioIrjvW\pw {iocam\pw {io_p\pw almhoc\pw \mKhwiPcmbncpp. {ioIrjvWs aI apdsns\ hnhmlw IgnXmbn `mKhXw tcJsSppp. {io_psbpw (imIyIpew) almhocsbpw (enOhn) P\\w \mKIpefnembncppsh Imcyw _ussP\ tcJIfn kphnZnXamWv. _ps PohnXImev aK[ `cnncpXv inip\mKhwiw Bbncpp. APmXi{Xp, _npkmc apXemb N{Ihnam \mKmcmbncpp. \h hntbmKnbpsS \mKNcn{Xw hnhn[ kwm\fnse ]pcmX\amb \mKkwkvIrXn bpsS AhinjvSsfn hniZamb N \Ippv. Cs ]mInm\nse aqem\hpw (apm) Xinebpw Imivaocnse A\\mKv apXemb \mK\mat[b nep BbncWn\p efpw \mKhwins Ncn{Xw `qanimkv{Xw XpSnb hkvXpXIfntev shfnw hoiphbmWv. lnamNense Ipfp Xmgzcbn ]Xns\p k Bcm[nsSpp. Xtiob `mjbn In FXv ks kqNnnpXmbpw IncmXs\m \mKs\bmWv kqNnnpsXpw hntbmKn tcJsSppp. In, IncmX Fo \mKkqNIamb ]Zfn \nmImw Hcp ]s tIcfw F t]cns Dhsa A\pam\n\pw km[yXbpv. taLmebnse JmknIppIfnse P\]Zw tIcfnse \mbmcpsS kImfo]qP Ifpw amXrZmb{Iahpw (acpambw) A\phnphcmWv. cmPjn ]mccyhpw t]mcmfnkz`mhhpw (Priest-King and nation in arms tradition) kaqln \ne\nncpp. tNc]pRvPn AYhm sNdm]pRvPnbpw Jmknae\ncIfpsS `mKamWv. cmPm\pw KpPdmpw almcmjv{Sbpw t\m Xmgzcbpw Fp th hSp]Snmdp \npw Ingtmp sNdm]pn hscbpw sXtmp sImWnsebpw ae_mdnsebpw tNc\KcnI hscbpw \mKhwins IY ]dbp AhinjvS hym]np InSpp. t\m Xmgzcbnse t\hmdpIfpsSbpw enOhnIfpsSbpw BNmcm\pjvTm\v hfsc kam\XIfpXmbn ]e ]T\fpw kqNnnpp. almhocs \mK\Kcamb sshimen bpsS IpessZhw kambncppshv hntbmKn tcJsSppp.
12

hnZnj, a[pc, ]hXn, Imn]pcn, hmImSIcmPyw, Kp]vXt`mPcmPhwi Chsbms Xs icnbmb hkvXpXIfpsS ASnm\n ]cntim[nm \mKhwiPcmbncpp shv t_m[ysSmw. \Kcw F ]Zw Xs \mKcm cq]sXmWv. \Kcn \nmWv \mKcnbpsS Dhw. ]n.kn.Iiy]ns9 hcnI {inpI. Epigraphic, numismatic and literary records and traditions have established the existence of Nagas in different parts of the country in ancient and medieval times and of their descendenats in present time. It is the Naga base that has given to Indian society its essential unity. There are numerous localities all over the country which are still named after the Nagas, for example, Nagpura, Uragapura, Nagarakhanda, Nagarcoil, Nagapatnam, Nagaur. There is hardly a village in rural India which doesnot have a link with the Nagas. Many of them have Naga temples.. having a Sivalinga or hooded primitive sculpture as the deity...

\mKmcm[\sbn temIpmbnp bm{XnIcpsS ]cmaifnepw, ]T\fnepsamw Xs ae_mnse \mKmcm[\bpw kmhpIfpw kt{Xfpw {]tXyIw ]cmain sSpp. aehmcw DWp Cu AXnibn\p ImcWw \mK]mccyw `mcXns sXp]Snmdv aqebn ASpImew hscbpw henb \miw IqSmsX \ne\nncpp FXmWv. kmRvOnbnse kvXq]fnse \mKhwi[z\nIsfnbp B[nImcnIamb ]T\n10 hfsc {itbamb Nne \nKa\ ImWpXv Xmsg Dcnpp: Naga dynasty, which from at least the second century CE appears to have been one of the most prolific coin-issuers at Vidisha; large hoards of tiny copper Naga coins have been retrieved from the ancient city mounds. Analyses of these coins, and other numismatic, epigraphical, and textual evidence, have led to the suggestion that the dynasty orig-inated during the second half of the second century CE in Vidisha, from where it moved north to Mathura, Pawaya, and Kantipurya, the three major Niaga centers mentioned in the Visnu Purana.That it may have been connected with the Vidisha area during earlier periods is suggested by the high number of Naga-related names in the first-century-BCE donative inscriptions at Sanchi. I also suggest that the naga sculptures in the area doubled as symbols of the Naga clan and, in particular, their patronage of major irrigation projects in the area. Although the Nagas' later history is relatively well attested from indirect references in Gupta and Vakataka inscriptions, how they related chronologically or politically to earlier panIndian dynasties such as the Ksatrapas is less clear. Preliminary insights have been provided by an inscription from Eran, which mentions the Saka chief Mahadandanayaka Sridharavarman, also the subject of the Kana-kherha well inscription at Sanchi. The object of the Eran inscription is to record the erection of a memorial pillar (yasti) by ridharavarman's military commander (senapati), a Naga chief from Maha-rashtra called Satyanaga. This reference supports the image of the Nagas as a powerful oligarchy, with family ties extending

10

Kashyap, PC., Surviving Harappan Civilization, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi-16, 1984 Julia Shaw, Nga Sculptures in Sanchi's Archaeological Landscape: Buddhism, Vaiavism, and LocalAgricultural Cults in Central India, First Century BCE to Fifth Century CE: Artibus Asiae, Vol. 64, No. 1 (2004), pp. 5-59.
s

13

far beyond the Vidisha-Eran orbit and close allegiances to the Ksatrapa authority. Later inscriptions provide clear evidence that the Nagas' political clout came to be seen as a threat to Gupta authority. It is ironic, for example, that although the inscriptions of Samudragupta (3 50-376 CE) and Skandagupta at Allahabad and Junagadh respectively are primarily concerned with record-ing their victory over the Ksatrapas, the most dramatic language of subjugation is reserved for the Nagas. Samudragupta's inscription refers to the "uprooting singly and in a moment" and the forcible extermination" of sections of the Naga dynasty. It has been suggested that the three Naga kings men-tioned by name, Achyuta, Nagasena, and Ganapati, had been part of a coalition aimed at removing Samudragupta from power. tIcfnsebpw CXc kwm\fnsebpw kvIqfpIfn ]Tnnp HutZymKnI Ncn{X fn \mKhwisn ]cmaitfbn. \mK]mccys CmXmWw F IpnX_pn tIctfm]n t]msebp Ncn{Xw FgpXnb hnZzmmcpsS ]npdmv Dmbm ApXn\v AhImian. In Bhandarkar's words: that the formation of this confederacy was a great menace to the Gupta power and that its destruc-tion was consequently regarded as the greatest ofSamudragupta's military feats is inferred from the fact that this achievement alone has been described in the verse portion with which the Alla-habad pillar inscription begins. There are also epigraphical allusions to the defeat of the Nagas' allies, the Vakatakas, leading to their forcible relocation from their original territory in Bundelkhand to Nandivardhana in the Deccan.45 However, that the continued enmity of these two subjugated dynasties was considered too dangerous a threat to political stability is suggested by the Guptas' concerted efforts to maintain peaceful links between the three houses. This three-way confederacy was consolidated by the marriage between Samudragupta's son, Chandragupta II, and the Naga Princess Kuberanaga, who had been raised in Samudragupta's court. Their daughter, Prabhavati, later became a powerful independent ruler following the premature death of her husband, the Vakataka prince Rudrasena II.47 Although the Guptasc learlyk ept the upperh and in this alliance,P rabhavati's mixed political and familiala lle-giances were instrumental in ensuring the political standing of her Naga relatives back in the Vidisha area. For instance, the marriageb etween her daughter and her half-brother,G hatotkaca, the viceroy in Vidisha,d uring the reign of her otherb rother,K umaragupta(4 I5-454 CE), ensuredt hat by the time the latter's illegitimate son, Skandagupta (455-467 CE), came to the throne, the three-way ties of the Gupta-Naga-Vakataka alliance remained intricately intermeshed. This alliance may have influenced the battle for the throne between Skandagupta and his uncle Ghatotkaca, and the result-ing split between the western and easternh alves of the Gupta empire. Bakkerw rites that during this conflict, "the Guptas [at Vidisha] may have been supported by Naga feudatories who hadn't yet for-gotten their defeat by Samudragupta and were biding their time." This would have led to the re-enforcement of the "old Vakataka-Vidisa-Naga axis," the Nagas here being Ghatotkaca's allies rather than his adversaries,a s assumed by earlier writers. According to Bakker, there are strong allusions to these developments in the Junagadh inscription, which describes Skandagupta as he "who forged an order with an effigy, namely Garuda, which rendered devoid of poison the serpent rulers [i.e. the Nagas] who uplifted their hoods in pride and arrogance." On a religious level, the reference to Garuda, the traditional slayer of serpents, is a clear pun on the Gupta's strong Vaisnava allegiances and the long-standing relationship of ambivalence between Visnu and nagas. On
14

a political level, though, it seems that the Nagas, once again, had become a force to be reckoned with. Nagas and Buddhism Much of what we know about ndga worship comes from early Buddhist texts, in which serpent deities are often described as dangerous local spirits that eventually become subdued and "converted" by the power of the Buddha? They then take on their new "Buddhist" role as protectors of the Buddha, the dharma or the Buddhist relic. Depictions of nagasa re thus common at Buddhist sites across India, often with reference to the well-known story of Buddha's protection from a storm by Naga Muchalinda during his quest for enlightenment. Nagas are presented as dangerous and requiring external control because of their venomous bite, but also because of their ability to bring about environmental havoc by either withholding the monsoon rains or causing excessive deluges. There is another related reason for their assimilation into Buddhism: because of their perceived status as guardians of particular places, their appropriationi s essential to the sangha'se stablishment, or localization, in new areas. By assert-ing his superiority over the local nagaraja, the Buddha takes on the attributes of the divine ruler of the place, and thus gains ritual legitimization for the presenc eof thensan gha. Further because of the close link betweenn dgasa ndk ingship,t he Buddhab ecomesl inkedi n the mindso f the localp opulacew ith the otheothe r major symbol of local authority, the king: there are numerous tales relating how the king's rule is dependent upon the "authorization of the naga who is the primary guardian and master of the territory,"and who will withdraw his support if the king fails to behave properly. Not only does the sangha adopt a similar legitimizing role in its relationship to the Cakravartin kings, it also appropri-ates the nagas' ritual function by claiming to possess ultimate control over the natural elements. This is attested by the elaborate rainmaking rituals described in Mahayana texts such as the Mahdmegha-sutra; although nagas continue to feature as the facilitators (and also withholders) of rain, it is the Buddha who ultimately grants them this power.The image that this text presents, of the sangha having established a monopoly over the " religious business " of weather control through an alliance with pow-erful, albeit subordinated, ndga deities, is supported by the writings of the fifth-century-CE Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien, who describes monks worshipping at naga shrines inside monastic compounds in ordert o ensurea dequater ainfalla nd to protect against "plaguesa nd calamities. According to Cohen, the wellknown ndga shrine in cave 16, Ajanta, would have been worshipped in a similar way. Naga Sculptures at Sanchi Althougha llusions to nagas can be found in the stupa railing carvings and inscriptions at Sanchi, there is no evidence for free-standing sculptural representations prior to the first century BCE. The earliest known group, published by Williams, consists of a naga-nagin couple from Gulgaon (fig. 2), a village about two kilometers to the west of Sanchi, and another similar couple from Nagauri hill (fig. 3), immediately to the south of Sanchi. Slightly later in date are a group offouryaksa and yaksi sculptures from Vidisha, including the wellknown Kubera yaksa, now stored in the Vidisha Archaeological Museum (fig. 4). The generally accepteddte dda te range for these sculptures, in the above order, is from the middle to the end of the first century BCE. Williams' study also includes a later group of naga sculptures, datable to the Gupta period (ca. fifth century CE). This consists of two nagas and a nagini at Sanchi, and a naga-nagin couple and naga pillar capital at Ferozpur, a village to the west of Sanchi.107 The group of nagas introduced in this paper may also be divided into
15

an early (ca. first century BCE to first century CE) and a late phase (ca. fifth century CE), in keeping with Williams' framework; an additional, intermediary phase is datable to the second or third century CE . Taken together, these three phases will henceforth be numbered I, II, and III. The phase II sculptures are closely related to Kusana images of the Mathura region, in distinct contrast, therefore, to the lack of locally produced images of this period at Sanchi itself. However, given the lack of evidence for Kusana dynastic control of the area, it is inappropriateto refer to theses culptures as "Kusana." There are also differences in geographical distribution: Williams' group is concentrated in and around Sanchi, extending into the hilly area immediately to the west. By contrast, most of the sculptures introduced in this paper are situated on the flat agricultural plain to the east of Sanchi, with an additional two sculptures at Amacchar, on the western bank of the river Betwa immediately to the north of Vidisha (fig. I). Another difference is that when both groups of nagas are viewed together, an element of cultic diversity becomes evident that was not immediately apparent on the basis of Williams' group alone. Not only can we identify "independent" naga cult spots; it is also possible to identify Brahmanical (particularly Vaisnava) and Buddhist serpent deities. Cu \o DcWnI Nnesnepw A\mhiyambn tXmmw. tIcfnse \mbmcpsS Cs _unI kmlNcyn \mK]mccyns Bgsfnbpw AXn\v aqecq] n ssihimtb ]mccyhambpw ]nmev ssP\_usshjvWh ]mc cyhpambpw Dmb _mhsn B[nImcnIamb Adnhv \Iphm ap aman. hfsc Ffpw ]dp Xom\mImhn[w koamWv Cv \mKNcn{Xw. \mK]mccyns hnkvXrXamb AhtemI\w \h hntbmKnbpsSbpw apw ]T\fn e`yambXn\m IqSX N ChnsS HgnhmpIbmWv. tIcfnse Nne {_mWNcn{X Imcm \mbmcpsS amXrZmbsbpw acpambsbpw kao]Ime kw`hfmbn Nn{XoIcnv \mbmcpsS \mKkzXzs Cmbva sNm ASpImepw {iaw \Snbnp v. ]nXrZmbw A\phnp \qXncnamcpw CXc {_mWcpambn \mbmv Xom Xocm kmaqlnIkwkvImcnI sshPmXyfpv. acpambw Hgnm Chbn Ghpw {][m\w tIcfn \mK_ussih]mccyn m]nXamb t{XfmWv. t{Xm cm[\v sshZnI]mccyn bmsXmcp m\hpan. sshZntIXcamb kmwkvImcnI ]mccynemWv \ho\inembpKns (saKmennIv) XpSbmbn `mcXn h\Kc fpw _uImen\p tijw kvXq]fpw XpSv t{Xfpw \nehn hXv. ]mckv cmas\mw Cdm\neqsS at[yjybn \npw h \mK{ZmhnUtcm sskh\mKcnIXv Pw \Inb {ZmhnUtcm BIWw _ubpKn kvXq]fpw t{Xfpw ]nmev tImIfpw \nnphm XpSnbXv. BcymcptSXmb Anaotf ]ptcmlnXw...F enJnX ap Hcp C{t{Xtam tImtbm Cp hsc e`yambnnsXv \mw HmWw.

4.

\mbmcpsS BymnI]mccyw

\mbmcpsS BNmcm\pjvTm\sfn apIfn ]cmainsSpIbpmbn. `mcXns BymnINcn{Xw I]ne\nemcw`np \mKkkn]mccyw apXp am{Xta IrXnIfn eqsS AdnbsSppp. I]nes kmwJyZi\w kl{km_vZ \ofp kn]mccyn s krjvSnbmsW hkvXpXv sXfnhp \IpXmWv lcbnse ]ip]Xn ap{Z. IpetZhn amcpw tbmKoizcmcpw Xm{nI]mccyhpw \ndp \n ]qa[yGjymhIc BsI s \mKssNX\yw \ndp\n ]qWy`qanbmbncppshv kqNnnp sXfnhp I J\\KthjWfneqsS IqSpX IqSpX e`yambn hcnIbmWv. ssihtbmK]mccyn
16

s Ncn{Xhpw `qanimkv{Xhpw ImXepw F{X ]pcmX\hpw A]mchpamsW hkvXpX kqNnnpXmWv Xmsg \Ip DcWn. Shaivism seems to have been the main source of religious thought in the Indo-Mediterranean world before the Aryan invasions. The methods of spiritual realization which it has handed down to us in the form of Yoga techniques appear as a unique contribution in the history of religions and are still the conscious or unconscious basis of any true inner search. The teachings of Yoga and the Shaivite conception of the world have survived barbarian invasions and dogamtic religions in more or less dissimulated forms, only to reappear whenever mankind once more takes up true spiritual research. After the disaster caused by the northern invasion to the Indus civilization as to the civilizations of Sumer and Minoan world, Shaivism reappeared in India, just as it did later in the Dionysiac cults of Greece and the Mediterranean. It would be immpossible to underestimate the role it has played in the conception of rite and customs of all later religions. Even when motivated by partial information, the interest aroused by Yoga and Indian thought may be an indication of a return to Shaivite-Dionysiac concepts in the unquiet world of today.11 Pohs \nXyXbpsS Dmns\ A\p`hndnbp [\yXbmWv \mK]mccyw. As\bp \mK]mccynemWv ssihmKav ]ndhn DmbXv. DmgvNbneqsS _mly{]] ns A\hnkvXrXnsb, AWvUISmlsbmsI, kzmmhn knthinnv AssZz XmkpJn\v `mjyw cNn knmcpsS \mKtemIambncpp BZn\mbmcpsS tNcfw. `mcXamsIs Hcp Imev Cu \mK]mccyw \ne\nncppshXn\v imw`himtb ]mccyfn hyamb sXfnhpI e`yamWv. Pohs A\izcXbnep \mbmcpsS ASnbpd hnizmkw D]cnhambncpn. B_enp a\pjys\ k\mp knm\p `hneqnb IqmbvabmWv \mbmcpsS Nmth ]ndhnsbv ]dbmw. `{ZImfn \mbcpsS Pohs ImemXoXamb `{ZXbpsS ]Shmfmbn Imens BkpcXmWvUhs l\np \np Nn{XamWv alnjmkpcan\nbmbn \mK]mccyn XnfpXv. AkpcN{Ih nbmb alm_enbpsS ktlmZcnbmWv sFXnlyf\pkcnv `{ZImfn. hntcmN\]p{Xn bmb, Bkpcnbmb `{ZImfn bpk\mb \mb ]SbmfnbpsS Bkzcq]ns kn h\bmWv. hfsc {]knamb alnjmkpcan\nbpsS inhs\ Nhpn \np Nn{Xw NmthdpIfpsS, kZminhs Bkzcq]amWv {Xn]mtc ]otT ihinhlrZnkvtachZ\mw almImtet\mssaZ\ckemhWy\ncXmw kamktm \w kzba]n cXm\\nctXm Pt\mtbm[ymtbXv Xzmw ... kZminhs ]Xn\pXnYnIfpsS lrZb]oTn \npw heXpIm \on shv CSXpIm ]mXn Dbn \na\w sNp `{ZImfnbpsS aZ\emhWyw [\yX ]IncpXmbncpp Hcp Imev \mb kaqlw. Fm bpfnepw hnPbnbmb \mb, `{ZImfnbpsS Binp Ifm ImeamIp t]mns\, Xs `uanIamb \izcXsb AXnPohnp Pohkzcq]amWv. arXyphns\ ]pIn ImfnbpsS I\nthdn arXyphns\ AXnPohnp \mbcpsS ktXam bncpp Nmth]S.

11

Danielou Alain, Yoga: Mastering the Secrets of Matter and the Universe, Inner Traditions International, Rochester, Vermont, 1991
17

kmaqlnIamb Npp]mSpI krjvSnp A\nhmcyXbmbncpn \mKhwins hotcXn lmkfpsS ]nmpdw. adnv, knm\p`hne[njvTamb Hcp BymnI Iqmbva bmbncpp `mcXnse t]mIpesf \bn ssNX\yw. cP]p{XcmIs, imIycmIs, enOhnIfmIs, \mK]ccbnse kZminhcpw kXnIfpw B_enbn hnPbw am{Xw ZinhcmWv. \mKcpsS Cu \nXm ssP{Xbm{XbmWv AhcpsS `KhXnv A]cmPnX F A]c\maw \InbXv.

AfpsSbpw AcfpsSbpw Ipew

Afpw Acfpw ]ndXv amXwKnsb NWvUmenbpsS ]mn/NnX]pn \nm sWXns {]XoImI h\bmWv Immf\mb cXv\mIc hmoInbmb IY. \mK ]mccyns AcknnbpsS A\p`qXnP\yamb {]XoIamWv BZnIhnbmbn amdnb IncmX AYhm Immf. amXwKnsb NWvUmensb D]mknp knn ssIh IncmX\mWv NWvUme. BbncWn\v hjp tijhpw Cu hkvXpXIv sXfnhmbn am I\ymIpamcnv kao]w hncmPnpp. Cu amXwKn XsbmWv ]cipcmas amXmhmb tcWpIsbXv bmZrnIXb. NnX]pv ]mn]pmIpXv \mKcpsS `qanbn AXmbXv aqem[mcn am{XamWv. \mKns ]pv aqem[mcnse `qanbmWv, IpWvUamWv, IpamcnbpsS IpeamWv. kp{_Wys\ AYhm Ipamcs\ \mKambn Bcm[nsSp Ipsbnepw ]pmWv aqe_nw_w FXv \mK]mccyns bmKmcqVXbpsS kqN\bmWv. \mKincnse amWnIyw kw_amb \mtSmSn k]n \npw ]ndhn sImXmIWw \mKns ip{`aWnb F t]cv. \mKaWn FXv \mKcmPs\ ]Zns {ZmhnU XhamsWv \h hntbmKnbpsS \mKNcn{Xn kqNnnsSpp. `qan tbm\nbpsS {]XoIhpw Dbp \np ]pv enwKns {]XoIhpamsWv hntbmKn ]dbpp. \mKw `q]XnbmIpXn\p ImcWhpw tbmKimkv{X]camWv. `mcXns AXnhnZqcImeZpcqlXIfn thcnp \np \mK]mccyw {]mIrXat? NmthdpIfnepw AhcpsS kXnIfnepw ZnhyXzw Btcm]np, {]iwkmIamb Cu teJ\w {]mIrXamb A\mNmcsf ]pIgvm shp GtXm tcmKmhbpsS {]Xn^e\at? Cs\bp \nch[n tNmZy Cu teJ\w B[p\nIa\pIfn Dbm\nSbpv. As\bp kwibv Dcw Ifcnbn ]nd `{ZImfn am{XamWv.

hntcmN\]p{Xnbmb `{ZImfn
]mepw ]ghpw \nthZnv kXzKpWnbmbn Nabp I]S\mK{_mW `KhXnv X{w \Sp Cmev hntcmN\]p{Xnbpw Bkpcnbpamb `{ZImfnbpsS nXn FmWv? AkpchntcmN\s aI `mhIpen\pw CXc NmthIpepw IpetZhnbmbsX s\? `{ZImfnbpsS PthZnbpw Ifnfhpw Ifcnd BbsXs\? \mKkZminhs kp]p{Xnbmbn `{Zsb BKa FpsImv hntijnnpp? Acfpw Afpw Ifcnbn ]ndsXs\?

a\pjy ]ipthm ]ip]Xntbm?

BpcpIfmWv a\pjys ]qnIsctm atm ]cnWmaknmw ]dbpp. Fm BpcpIfn \npw a\pjy\ntep PohinbpsS {]bmWw, ]cnWma{]{InbbpsS BcnILS\bpw NmeIXbpw XnsSpm\p _mSnemWv Cv B[p\nIPoh imkv{Xw. Fm ssihmKav Cmcyn bmsXmcp kwibhpan. CcpImenbmbn ambm`KhXn hmsSp Ipc\nse Xetmdn\pmb A[nIXzcnXhnImkamWv ]ip hns\ ]ip]Xnbmnb ]cnWmans ImXse \nKa\ntemWv ssihmKa hnc
18

NqpXv. KpcpXzmIjWw \sneqsS t\tc Xmtgv hogpIbpw \nhp \n a\pjys\ CcpImenicocns KpcpXztI{w \m`nbn tI{oIrXamIpIbpw sNbvXp. Cs\ \nhp \np ssI\on ap{ZImn XpSnb a\pjy\n cq]w sIm kz`qan]mXmf fnemWv tZhmkpcmcpw a\pjycpw XfpsS ]Stbmw XpSnbXv. a\pjy\nse tZhmkpc `mhfs\ Ifcn sIn \Snb Btbm[\IebneqsSbmWv Xetmdns AXnbmb hnImkw DmbXv. As\ A[nIhnImkw {]m]n CcpImenbpsS {]XoIamWv AkpchntcmN\. ]Sbmfnbmb Cu hntcmN\\mWv Xs Xetmdn AYhm kl{k Zf]n Pw sIm amXwKnsbbpw `{ZImfnsbbpw BZyambn XncndnbpXv. ]SbmfnbpsSbpw `{ZbpsSbpw B_w Bcw`npXv ChnsSbmWv. P\\acWmZnIfpsS hocN{Iw krjvSn XzcnX]cnWmans {]XoIamWv knwlhmln\nbmb `{ZImfn. knwl ]cm{Ianbmb kZminh\neqsS kwPmXbmbn IfcndpIfnepw ]Sffnepw cw IpSnp aZnp NWvUmenbmWv \mKcpsS `{ZImfn. a\pjycminbpsS ]cnWma{]{InbbpsS BZnIme\nmbI Lfn bptmpIXbpw Ifcn \Inb Btbm[\ apdIfpw _pnhnImks XzcnXsSppXn Hcp {][m\ ]phlnnpv. t]mcmfnbneqsS a\pjy\v ssIh Cu _pnhnImkamWv AXo{nb knnIv hgn sXfnXv. Bbp[]qP kckzXo]qPbmIp ]mccyw \mKknamWv. `{ZImfnbpw {Xn]pckpcnbpw XnsemWp hyXymkw? Ftmcp tNmZyw kqcPv tNmZnpIbpmbn. ]Sfnse `{ZImfn Dn {iohnZybmbn hnfpXmWv {Xn]pc kpcn FXmWv imkv{Xobamb Dcw.

5. inh\pw khpw
GsXmcp BNmcamsWnepw AXns imkv{XobX t_mysSpXn\v, hkvXpXm]camb AhtemI\n\v ]mmXysc B{ibntnbncnpp. CSpnb at\mKXn sImp kXys A\yamp Hcp ]WvUnX ]mccyamWv Cs aebmfns apJap{Z. Ncn{X kw_hpw AymhnZym]chpamb aebmfnbpsS ]T\sfmw aXnbmb ]T\hpw DmgvNbpw CmhbmWv. inh\mK]qPbpsS aebmfhymJym\ {inm Cu hkvXpX t_mysSmw. 1877 e\n {]knoIcn mv & thvs ]pkvXInse \ncoW B[p\nI aebmfnbpsS _unI]mcw shfnhmphbmWv.12

inh]qP {]mIrX BNmca

The researchers are exploration of travellers, scientists and learned investigators are every day adding to our knowledge of the Serpent Cultus. It is rising above the old conception of an obscure and ill-defiend superstition to the dimensions of a religion, distinctly outlined in its characteritsic features and by no means without a recondite metaphysical basis.

inhs kmeuInIX
Mr Clarke, for many years and explorer of human origins, conducts us to the field of Philology, and shows us Siva who had been often imagined to be a subordinate divinity, and who was not known in the Vedic pantheon of the more ancient times, to be indeed a Mahadeva not only the greatest God of ante-Brahman India, but also the first God of Africa, Western Asia and Central America; the God who has par excellence, the serpent for his symbol. He is Sibu, Shivatt, Kebe,
12

Clark, H and Wake, CS., Serpent and Siva Worship, New York 1877
19

Sabazious, and his seat is in the sky, at the very zenith, at the omphalos of the day. He is one and The One. The Spirit which animates all nature and of which every man is a manifestation. Before the Veda he was Buddha, the source of the Veda rather than its revealer.

\mKhpw \mKcmPmhpw
The Serpent worship is full of significance. This was a great feature of the religion of the Cushites; but the serpent will convey a poor notion of its meaning to those who do not understand what it was. The serpent was regarde as a symbol of intelligence, of immortality, of protection against the power of evil spirits and of a renewal of life or of the healing powers of nature. inh \mKcmPmhmWv. IcnaqJ IrXlkvX\mb tbmKnv ASnabmWv. bYm tbmKnbp sS apJap{ZbmWv Igpnsebpw PSbnsebpw k. `mcXnse \mK]qPbpsS Nbn hneyw temKs\ Dcnv Pbnwkv tlnwKvkv tIcfnse kmhpIsfn ]dbpXv {inpI. The cult of the serpent in India is of special importance; in no other part of the world is it more widely distributed or developed in more varied and interesting forms.... In no part of India is the cult more general than in S. India. Here we find the Teavu, or snake-grove, which resembles the nagavana of N. India.A clump of wild jungle trees luxuriantly festooned with graceful creepers is usually to be found in the.S.W. corner of the gardens of all respectable Malayali Hindus. The spot is left free to Nature to deal with as she likes. Every tree and bush, every branch and twig is sacred. This is the vishattum Kavu (poison shrine) or nagakotta (snake shrine). Usually there is a granite stone (chitra-kootakkallu) carved after the fashion of a cobra's head set up and consecrated in this waste spot. Leprosy, itch, barrenness in women, deaths of children, the frequent appearance of snakes in the garden, and other diseases and calamities brought about by poison, are all set down to the anger of the serpents. If there be a snake shrine in the garden, sacrifices and ceremonies are resorted to. If there be none, then the place is diligently dug up, and search is made for a snake stone, and if one is found it is concluded that the calamities have occurred because of there having been a snake shrine at the spot, and because the shrine had been neglected. A shrine is then at once formed, and costly sacrifices and ceremonies serve to allay the serpents' anger.13

\mKw ssP\]mccyn
In Jainism the symbol of the Tirthakara Parsvanatha is a serpent (sarpa).The colossal statue of Gomatesvara at Sravana Belgola is surrounded with white ant-hills from which snakes emerge. The Nagamalai, or snake-hill, is said to be ths remains of a great serpent formed by the magic art of the Jains, and prevented by the power of Siva from devouring the Saiva city of Madura, and at the Ramatirtha stands a Jain image covered by a cobra with expanded hood.

\mK_u]mccyw
The records of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims supply numerous examples of the serpent-cult in Buddhism, particularly as guardians of trees and springs. Two dragon-kings washed the infant Buddha; the dragon grants a site for monasteries in his lake; the Naga Raja, Muchilinda, protects
13

Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Edited by James Hastings, p. 413 of Vol.XI

20

Buddha with his folds. On the Bodh Gaya rails the naga spreads his hood, and at Bharhut a king with a five-headed snake-hood kneels before an altar behind which is a tree. At the Sarpa (or serpent) cave, excavated about the time of Asoka, a three-headed, serpent of a very archaic type appears. In W. India the Saiva Buddhist converts preserved their original snake-worship. In the records of the Chinese pilgrims we find Buddhist sramanas worshipping the naga and conducting rites at naga shrines. A favourite gift at modern Buddhist pagodaa in Burma is a representation in gold of the Lord Buddha, with a hooded snake raising itself over him.

6. kqcyhwihpw tNchwihpw
`mcXNcn{Xnse Ghpw {]knnbmn cp hwimhenIfmWv kqcyhwihpw N{hwi hpw. BIminse t]mse `qanbnepw AYhm As above; so below FXp t]mse Ghpw imkv{Xobambn \Snbnp Hcp hwihn`P\amWv CXv. \mKhwins cv ssIhcn IfmWv kqcyN{hwisfv A\pam\nphm ]e ImcWfpv. Cu ImcWfn Ghpw {][m\sXv tPymXnximkv{Xns Dhw \mK]mccynemsWXmWv. IqSmsX \mKhwi]camb {]XoIfpw BNmcm\pjvTm\fpsamw Xs tPymXnximkv{X]c amsWv \apv hfsc Ffpn a\nempXn\pw km[yamWv.
(1) `mcXob]mccyn tPymXn{Iw cmlpinJn (cmin) N{Iw AYhm Imekw

FdnbsSpp.
(2) kqcyN{]YfpsS kwKa_npsf CXc JtKmfsftmse {Klfmbn Inp

Ibpw As\ e`yamb \h{Klsf \mKfmbn Bcm[npIbpw sNpp.

(3) \h{Klsf \mKfmbpw inhs\ \mKcmPmhmbpw Bcm[npp. Imew Imekw

Imess`ch aqXemb k]fpw ImeinbpsSbpw tbmKinbpsSbpw kzcq]hpambn _shbmWv.

\mK

(4) \mK]mccyw tbmK]mccyamWv. kqcy\pw N{\pw \mK]mccyn {]mWs kqcy

N{ \mUnIfmWv. ]nWvUmWvUneqsS {_mWvUs Adnbp DmgvNbmWv tbmKinbpsS ImX. Xmsg \Ip DcWn {inpI. We inevitably perceive the outer world through the intermediary of the senses which are narrow portholes allowing us a fragmentary and deformed glimpse of the reality outside. Even if the great cosmos is reluctant to reveal its secrets, however, there is another cosmos within us, from which we are not separated by the same barriers... It is by studying the microcosm that we can understand the macrocosm; it is through our own impermanent thing that we can reach the Universal Being. It is in the cavern of our heart that we can realize the immensity of spaces and by controlling our own vital rhythms we can escape the power of time. By reaching the source of life we can escape the power of death. By exploting the unknown spheres within ourselves, we can visit the celestial and infernal worlds14 (5) kqcyhwinsbpw N{hwinsbpw Dhw {]mWmkv]Zamb tbmK\mUnI ASnm\ambpXmsWpw lcbnse ]ip]Xn kmysSpp Xm{nI kn]mc cytmfw ]gw tbmKmKanIhnm\I]\IpmImsapw CXn\m \apv Dulnmw.

14

P.2 Danieolu, A, Introduction to Yoga

21

(6) X{hnZym]camb

IpWvUen\okm[\ `n t]cpIfnemsWn Xsbpw ]pcmX\ \mKcnIXIfnsems {]knambncppshv B[p\nI ]T\ sXfnbnpp. DZmlcWn\v ttmbpsS hmpI {inpI.

In the Timaeus, Plato describes what he calls lower soul, the appetitive part of a personality obsessed with bodily pleasures, and higher soul, the spiritual part whose reach transcends the bodily realm. Somewhat surprisingly, he does not consider sexual desire among the appetites of the lower soul, but as a degenerate form of higher soul activity. The higher soul, he says, desires only to be reunited with the World Soul, or One; this, Plato says, is the true and pure form of eros. When, however, the soul is embodied and becomes subject to external influences through the senses, a degenerate form of desire for the One, and for immortality in the One, arises. This is exemplified in the desire of the individual to merge with the species, which the soul mistakenly sees as the One, and to attain immortality through offspring. Other factors enter also, such as seeing, in a sex object, the shadow of the Idea of Beauty, and mistakenly seeking the Idea in the shadow that stimulated memory of it. Thus, the true eros, which is desire for supreme knowledge, freedom, and eternality, is replaced temporarily by a false eros, which is sexual desire15. lcmbnse DuztcXmb almtbmKnbpsS {]mWmbmans imkv{XamWv XpSv ttm hyampXv. Plato proceeds to describe the physiology of sex (Timaeus 73b ff., 91a ff.). Soul power, he says, resides in a moist substance whose true home is in the brain, the seat of the higher soul. The brain is connected, however, with the penis by a channel that passes through the center of the spine and connects with the urethra. Under the stimulus of false eros, the soul fluid in the brain is drawn down the spinal passage and ejaculated from the penis in the form of sperm, which is able to produce new living creatures precisely because it is soul-stuff. Although Plato does not speak directly to this point, it may be inferred that the practice of philosophy (which, for Plato, requires celibacy except for begetting children) involves keeping the soul-stuff located in the brain, that is, preventing it from flowing downward through the spinal channel. This inference is implicit in the Platonic doctrine, which holds that the philosopher must get beyond false eros to attain the true celestial eros. Because the false eros draws the seminal fluid down the spinal channel, the avoidance of false eros must end this downward flowing. ...this description of eros, in the Timaeus, obviously applies just as well to the Hindu doctrine of the kundalini. Similarly in the Hindu version, the natural or proper place of the kundalini, or soul-power, is at the top of the brain; when it is in this position, the yogin is in a state of union with the divine (quite as Plato said of his philosopher). In an unpurified person, however, the kundalini descends through the spinal channel and expresses itself not as divine union but as the drive to sexual union, and is expended through the penis in ejaculation. The practice of yoga causes the descended kundalini power to be drawn back upward through a channel in the center of the spine. The kundalini may occupy seven seats, or chakras: that at the base of the spine, that at the top of the brain, and five in between (Plato, however, mentions only two, the throat and the heart). As in Plato's description, the kundalini power is especially embodied in semen, and descends in the form of semen from the brain to the penis through the spinal channel. Various practices are recommended for preventing the semen from descending through the spinal channel
15

Thomas McEvilley, The Spinal Serpent, Anthropology and Aesthetics, No. 24 (Autumn, 1993), pp. 67-77
s

22

or, if some has already descended, for forcing it upward through that channel until it resides in the brain again;1 there its life-giving force can express itself in the form of spiritual rather than physical life.

a\pjy\nse \mKsn
This correspondence is remarkable enough to invite interpretation, but there is more. The Indian texts distinguish many subtle channels in the body. The foremost is the channel through which the kundalini passes up and down the spine (sushumna-nadi); nearly as important are two channels that pass along the spine but outside it (ida and p?ngala). These two surrounding channels resemble the ?con of the entwined serpents. Between their origin in the upper brain and their termination at the base of the spine, they cross one another five times; their points of intersection are the five intermediary chakras (fig. 1). Plato also knows of these two veins unknown to anatomists (Timaeus 77c. ff.); for him, they run along the sides of the spinal column and cross one another an unknown number of times (Plato mentions only the juncture at the throat). In Plato, as in the Indian texts, these subsidiary veins are secondary carriers of the soulpower. Finally, the correspondence between Plato's Timaeus and the kundalini extends to the imagery of the serpent. Spinal marrow was associated with the serpent by Aelian (De Natura Animalium 1.51) and by the kundalini tradition. The kundalini power is described as a serpent that, having been awakened, slithers up the spine. According to Aelian, the spinal marrow of a man leaves his body as a serpent when he dies. It is also sometimes conceived as involved in the healing process, as shown in a fourth-century relief (fig. 2).

\mKns {]mNo\X
Homer already had the idea that the cerebrospinal fluid (which he called engkephalos) was the container of life power. Whether he equated it directly with sperm is unknown, but is implied by the fundamental idea that the engkephalos was life-power. The connection of the spinal fluid with sperm seems present in Hesiod too, well before any known easy opportunity for Indian influence on Greek thought. At least as early as Democritus (perhaps born circa 460 b.c.), the engkephalos was believed to issue forth in sexual intercourse (DK 68B32), and the term may have been partly interchangable with aion, which Homer describes (Odyssey 5.160) as "the sweet aion flowing down." The total novelty of this doctrine in the Greek tradition in the sixth century b.c., then, is unlikely, although it may have been refined and reinforced by elements imported at that time. The presence of the doctrine of the engkephalos in the Homeric texts seems well established, as it is taken for granted, or treated as a given; therefore, its origin may extend far back in the Homeric tradition, which is known to contain elements that go back at least as far as the fifteenth century b.c. In fact, there is some evidence that the serpent-marrow-seed-soul identity was already in place in the Minoan-Mycenaean period16. One may want to look, then, for a source earlier than Democedes's stay in Persia, a source that could have influenced both Homer and the early Upanishads.

AbpsS \sneqsS kzntev

16

Nilsson opines that in Minoan-Mycenaean religion "the snake represents the soul of the deceased" Martin P. Nilsson, A History of Greek Religion, New York: Norton, 1964, p. 13
23

There is an Egyptian antecedent for the idea of attaining salvation or enlightenment through ascending the spine. In the myth in which Osiris climbs to heaven on the spinal column of his mother, the goddess Nut, the vertebrae are used as the rungs of a ladder... It also has been argued that there are hints of the doctrine in Sumerian iconography, specifically in the image of the entwined serpents, famously found on the "Gudea Vase," circa 2300 B.c. (fig. 3), and the upright figure surrounded or flanked by intertwined serpents, much as in the tantric iconography of the "serpent power" (figs. 4, 5).18 There is also a strong argument for the likelihood of this doctrine occurring in the early Indus Valley culture.19 Generally, then, the fundamental physiological model behind the kundalini doctrine -the spinal linkage between the brain and the urethra, and the identity of the brain fluid, the spinal marrow, and the semen seems to have been extremely widespread in the ancient world, although only the tantric and Platonic texts, as already mentioned, speak of the two subsidiary channels surrounding the spine.

kptadnb CUkv \mK_nw_

Several instances of this imagery in the Indus Valley cannot be explained at present except through the hypothesis of Sumer-lndus influence, in whichever direction and however mediated by other cultures. An Indus seal portraying a ritual of a tree goddess, for example, shows clearly in the lower left corner of the motif, common in Sumerian cylinder seals, a mountain or hillock flanked by two goats with their front feet on it and a tree or pole of some kind rising from its top (figs. 6, 7). One face of a triangular seal from Mohenjo-daro shows this motif again, identical in form to many Sumerian icons. Numerous other Indus examples of this image have survived. Several Indus seals show another of the most characteristic of Sumerian iconographs, often called the dompteur or Gilgamesh: a male hero standing between two lions who symmetrically flank him and whom he is holding in a gesture of mastery (figs. 8, 9). A burial urn from cemetery H at Harappa shows two dompteurs, each mastering two bulls. They have long hair and seem to be naked, like their Sumerian counterparts.Other heraldic flanking motifs abound in Indian iconography.Additionally, the lion bull combat, in which the lion attacks the bull from above and behind it, a commonplace of Sumerian iconography, occurs in the Indus Valley (figs. 10, 11), as does the goddess in the tree, a centrally important icon in both Egypt and Sumer (figs. 12, 13).28 These icons?the eagle and serpents, the mountain flanked by goats, the hero mastering lions, the lion-bull combat, the goddess in the tree - are central to Sumerian religion. Their presence in the Indus Valley city of Mohenjodaro (in the strata that indicate Sumerian trade was active) suggests that significant cultural exchanges took place during the Bronze Age between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. According to presently accepted chronologies, which tend to put the flowering of Sumerian civilization somewhat earlier than that in the Indus Valley, it would seem that both iconographical and conceptual elements of Sumerian religion were assimilated by Bronze Age India.

KthjIs hnNn{Xamb \nKa\w

XpSp Nbn Cu KthjI ]dbpXv Cg]ncnbp kfpsS Nn{Xw sskh Xocp ImWmXn\m AhnsS IpWvUen\otbmKw ]nmembncnmw kw`hnsXm Wv. ]ip]Xn ap{ZbpsS ASnm\w t_myanmXmWv Cu sXmb \nKa\n\p ImcWw. Perhaps the key icon involved is the entwined serpents, which are central to the tantric iconography of the spinal column with its subsidiary veins, and which have something to do with the designation of the kundalini as "serpent power." This is first encountered in Sumerian
24

iconography, for example in the famous Gudea Vase, where it seems to be the symbol of Gudea's personal deity, Ningizzida. It is not found in the Indus Valley iconography as presently known and, in fact, is not documented in India at all until after the fall of Persepolis.
(7) Xmbvense

Cs hnizmkfpsS koXbnepw kw t_mt[mZbns {]XoIambn IcpXsSpp.17

In accordance with Thai Buddhist conception, Buddhist temples symbolize the holy mount, Phra Sumer or Mount Meru in Tantrik cosmology, which represents Tavatimsa Heaven where Queen Siri Mahamaya (Buddhas mother) and Hindu divinities reside. Nagas decorated along the tiers of temple roofs represent the cosmic river of life source which springs from Mount Phra Sumer streaming down to the human world. In Theravada Buddhist architecture, the Naga shape carved stairs always hold a very important position in the temples, symbolizing the three ladders mythically linking earth to heaven. The pious believers souls are said to be lead up to Nirvana (heaven in Buddhism) on the magic ladder by the Naga. The gods use them to descend on earth. Theravada Buddhist mythology also says that the Buddha yearly uses the Naga ladder to descend to earth on a sacred day, middle of November after having preached to his mother and the divinities in Tavatimsa Heaven. Besides the signification of Buddhist mythology, a Thai folk legend also tells of Nagas bring earth from the bottom of rivers to built base of temples. Thus, the Naga shape carved stairs are present everywhere in Buddhist temples in Thailand.
(8) ZnW`mcXn {In.ap. aqmw \qmp apX GXmv \m\qdp hjw B[n]Xyw

m]n kmXhml\m kqcyhwinIfmbncppshv kmXhml\sc t]cpw \mWb fnse kqcy\pw hyampp. Ggp IpXncIfp kqcys t]cmWv kmXhml\. kmXhml\cpw Bcym[n\nthin\p tijw Dmb \mKbmZhm[n\nthins `mKambncpncnm km[yXbpv.
(9)

\mKhpw kqcy\pw18

\mKmcm[\bpsS imkv{Xobhisfn ]T\w \Snbnphscmss ]mmXycmWv. Ccp]Xmw\qmnse tIcfnse KthjW\nehmcw IcnaqJ a\pjy\nepfhmnb `oXn \nanamWv kmcm[\ \nehn hsXmWv. B[p\nIs `oXnsb ]gbImetv ]dnp \v {]mNo\amb BNmcm\pjvTm\sf hnNn{XhXvIcnv hymJym\npIbmWv \psS \mn \Sp KthjWw. \mKmcm[\bpsS hnhn[ hi tdmb GjymnIv skmsskn bnse AwKambncp kn.F^v. Hm[mw imkv{Xobambn N sNpXns Nne `mK Xmsg Dcnpp.

kmcm[\bpsS kmP\o\kz`mhw

Over a great part of India the rudely carved representation of a serpent, or a round stone in place of it, is to be found under nearly every large tree. To these Nags, as they are called, offerings are made, not of such things as "are usually eaten by snakes, but of things suitable for the food of man. Flowers, too, are frequently offered, and lights are burned before the shrines.
17

Phan Anh Tu, The Signification of Naga in Thai Architectural and Sculptural Ornaments The Sun and the Serpent, C.F.Oldham, 1905.
25

18

It must not be supposed that all snakes are worshipped. The Nag alone is sacred. The veneration for this serpent was not borrowed, as some have supposed, from the aboriginal tribes. It is intimately connected with the worship of the Sun, and is thus closely related to the orthodox Hindu religion. The hooded serpent was, as we shall see later, a totem of the people who claimed descent from the Sun. And the Naga demigods, who are described in Brahmanical writings as "The Celestial Serpents belonging to Surya, were deified chiefs of the solar race. These demigods belong to a class of deities, no longer orthodox but very popular, which has still its temples, its priests, and its worshippers, both in northern and in southern India. It is to these ancient deities, rather than to the great gods of the Brahmans, that the Hindu people first turn in times of trouble. To the Naga they pray for rain for their crops, and to the Naga, or the Deva, they pay their vows in time of pestilence or famine. To these, also, they offer the first milk of their cows, and the first-fruits of .their harvest.

\mKm kqcys XeapdI

The Kalakeyas, who were also called Kaleyas or Kalakhanjas, sprang from Vishnu, or the Sun; and they lived in the territory of Patala, that is, in the Indus valley and neighbouring country. Naga rajas appear to have succeeded Vritra, the great Ahi, in this portion of his dominions. We have it, on the authority of the Mahabharata, that the great Asura Arbuda was a Naga raja. And, from the genealogy of the - Solar race, we learn that the name of one of the royal family of Ajudhia was Ahi Naga. We find too that Ahi Deva was a demigod worshipped in Kashmir. The chief deity of the Asuras, as we have seen, in the case of the Kaleyas, was the Sun, or rather perhaps the Sun-god, from whom they believed themselves to be descended. They also venerated the Naga, or hooded-serpent, as the protector or totem of their race. \mK Imp `qanbmWv aehmcw AYhm ae_m ae kqcy {]ZnWw shp tacphpw aehmcw \mK IpSn]mp `qanbpamIpp. \mKs hmpIfnepw hcIfnepw \Snepw \mSynepw bpnepsamw imkv{Xw CgsImncpp. The hood of one or more of these serpents, expanded over his head, was the distinctive mark of a Naga demigod, or deified Solar chief. Surya, the Hindu Sun-god, is represented with a canopy over his head, formed of the hoods of a seven-headed Naga; so also is the Asura Rahu, and so too are the Naga demigods Vasuki or Baska Naga, Inclru Naga, and other serpent deities. This is strong evidence of the identity of the Asuras, or Nagas, with the Indian branch of the solar race, but further proof will not be wanting. The term Naga does not appear to have been a tribal name, but merely an appellation used, by Brahmanical writers, to distinguish those who venerated the Naga, or hooded-serpent. There can be no doubt that this serpent was held sacred by all the Asuras, as it was by other people who claimed solar descent. So generally, throughout the world, was the Naga held sacred, that it would seem to have been the earliest totem of the wide-spread Solar race.

tIcfnse Ipffpw Ipefpw

tIcfamsI Hcp Imev ImhpIsmw Ipffpw Dmbncpp. Cu Ipfp khpw kqcy\pambp _sambncpp? This supposed ability of the Naga rajas to control the elements, and especially the waters, arising no doubt from their connexion with the Sun, led apparently to their association with springs,
26

streams, and lakes. In these the serpent deities were supposed to dwell, although the Cobra is not a water-snake, and cannot live under water. Every lake and every spring in Kashmir, and in many other parts of India, was sacred to one or other of the Naga demigods, or to the sun. Near most temples of the sun is to be seen a pool, or tank, of clear water. This is called "Suraj Kund," or pool of the sun, and is sacred to the Sun-god. ]mXmfw Bbncpp \mKtemIns Xem\w. I]nehmkptZh\pw CXc \mKfpw (CzmIp apXembh) ChnsSbmWv PohnncpXv. apm AYhm aqem\w Iiy] \Kcnsbv (lncWy]pcw) {]knambncpp. Iiy]s {]XoIambncpp Ba. Dc`mc Xnse {][m\ P\]Zsfmw \mKmcm krjvSnshbmbncppshv Hm[w kqNnnpp. IpihXn, Atbmy, hmcWmkn, I]ne, lkvXn\mK]pcw, GIN{I, anYne, cmPKrlw, Xm{aen]vXn Cs\ ]smXp \Kc. Akpc\Kcnbmbncp {]mKv tPymXnjhpw Cu enn s]Spmw. Atbmybnse `cXs aI\mb X\mWv \mK \Kcnbmb Xine m]nXv. Ipnbpw IrjvW\pw \mKcmPmhmbncp BcyIs ]ccbn P\nhcmWv. sFXtcb {_mWw I{Zp]p{X\mb A_pZ\mKs a{ ZrjvSmhmb Ejnsbv hntijnnpp. AYthZn XIsshimey, Ccmh, [rXcmjv{S, hncq]m apXemb \mK {]IonsSpp. _ubpKns Ahkm\tmsSbmWv \mKhwiw `mcXNcn{Xn \npw A{]Xy amIpXv. CXn\p {][m\ ImcWw kwkvIrX`mjbpw AXneqsS {]Ncn CXnlmk, ]pcmWfpamWv. The Naga people disappear from history about the time of the downfall of the Buddhist religion. Probably the Brahmanic revival was fatal to both, and the Nagas, like the Buddhists, were induced, or compelled, to adopt orthodox Hinduism.

ZnW`mcXnse \mKaWvUew tNcaWvUew

There is further evidence, however, that the serpent-worshippers of the south of India were very closely related to those of the north. The Dravidian people have been divided, from ancient times, into Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. Chera, or Sera (in old Tamil Sarai) is the Dravidian equivalent for Naga ; Chera-mandala, therefore, has the same meaning as Naga-mandala, Nagadwipa, or the Naga country. This seems to point distinctly to the Asura origin of the Dravidians of the south. But in addition to this there still exists, widely spread over the Ganges valley, a people who call themselves Cherus or Seoris, and who claim descent from the serpent-gods. The Cherus are of very ancient race; they are believed to have once held a great portion of the valley of the Ganges, which, as we have already seen, was occupied in very early times by Naga tribes. The Cherus appear to have been gradually ousted from their lands, during the troublous times of the Mohammedan invasions, and they are now poor and almost landless. There can be little doubt that these people are the kinsmen of the Dravidian Cheras. The Cherus have several peculiar customs, and amongst them one which seems to connect them with the Lichavis, as well as with the Newars of Nepal. This is the election of a raja for every five or six houses, and his investiture, in due form, with the tilak or royal frontal mark. Both Lichavis and Newars had many customs in common with the Dravidians of the south. Each venerated the serpent, Karkotaka Naga being to Nepal what Nila Naga was to Kashmir. A Naga, too, was the tutelary deity of Vaisali, the Lichavi capital. The marital relations of Newars and Lichavis closely resembled those of the Tamil people, and go far to show a common origin.
27

Property amongst the Newars descended in the female line, as it once did amongst the Arattas, Bahikas or Takhas of the Panjab, whose sisters' sons, and not their own, were their heirs. This is still a Dravidian custom. In short, a recent Dravidian writer, Mr. Balkrishna Nair, says that his people " appear to be, in nearly every particular, the kinsfolk of the Newars. Besides all this, however, there are other links connecting the Naga people of the south with those of the north of India. In an inscription, discovered by Colonel Tod at Kanswah near the river Chambal, a raja, called Salindra, " of the race of Srya, a tribe-renowned amongst the tribes of the mighty' is said to be ruler of Takhya. This was evidently the Takhya or Takha kingdom of the Panjab, which was visited by Hiouen Tsiang, and which has been already referred to. It seems, therefore, that the Naga people of Takhya were known also by the name of Sarya. Again, in the outer Himalaya, between the Sutlej and Beas valleys, is a tract of country called Saraj, or Seoraj. In this district the Naga demi-gods are the chief deities worshipped. There is another Seoraj in the upper Chinab valley, and this too is occupied by a Naga-worshipping people. The name Saraj, or Seoraj, appears to be the same as the Sarya of Colonel Tod's inscription, and as Seori, which is the alternative name of the Cherus of the Ganges valley. It also seems to be identical with Sarai, which, as we have already seen, is the old Tamil name for the Chera or Naga. Apparently, therefore, the Saryas of Takhya, the Saraj people of the Sutlej valley, the Seoris or Cherus of the valley of the Ganges, and the Cheras, Seras, or Keralas of southern India, are but different branches of the same Naga-worshipping people. \qdphjw apv FgpXs {Knse hnhcfmWnh. Cv tIcfnsegpXsp ImWp Ncn{XKfnse ipjvIamb AhtemI\ hmbnm tIcfns _unIamb A[x]X\w t_mysSmw.

KcpV\pw kqcyhwihpw
Who then was Garuda? We find, from the Mahabharata, that the Garudas inhabited one of the provinces of Patala. They are said to have been much favoured by Vishnu, or the Sun, whom they worshipped. A list of forty-eight Garuda chiefs is given, and it is said that only those are mentioned who have won distinction, by might, fame, and achievements.Garuda, or the eagle, therefore, was the totem of one of the Solar tribes of Patala. These people were fierce and warlike, and they were engaged in frequent hostilities with their neighbours. Garuda is described as tearing the bodies of the Yakshas, and devouring the Nishadas; also as destroying the elephant and the tortoise, which represent Solar tribes. Garuda is said to have attacked Indra, and to have carried off the Amrita. kqcyhwihpw _ussP\]mccyhpw

...both the Buddhist and the Jaina religious systems were closely connected with the worship of the Sun and the serpent. The cause of this appears to have been that each of these forms of religion arose, or at all events found their chief supporters, amongst the Solar tribes who had not come completely under grahmanical influence. According to Brahmanic authorities, both Buddhism and Jainism had their origin amongst the Asuras
(10) \mKcpsS kucbqYw aqem[mcnse `qan apX ZzmZimw hsc \ofp tacpZWvUamb

\sn\p NppamWv A\p`hamIpXv. kqcys {]knamb [ym\w Imteiw {Klhw N am\nebw {]mNoapJw hpfw
28

cw cXv\hn`qjW[zPcYO{X{inbm tim`nXw k]vXmizw IaeZzbm\znXIcw ]mk\w Imiy]w tatcmZnhyKntcx {]ZnWIcw tkhmatl `mkvIcw Cuhn[w hnsSp kqcy Imen\v Cui\mWv, Imekns {]XoIamWv, Imens Ghpw tim`bm apJamWv. kcq]am ImetbmKinkzcq]fp sS {]XoIsa \nebn kamWv. CmcWmemWv kqcymcm[\ kmc[\bpsS `mKambnoXv. {Kl\mKfpsS cmPmhmb kqcys \mKcmPmhmb inhs {]XoIhp amIpp. kqcyN{mcpsS inhiymI {]Xn\n[nXzw X{ns ASnm\ XzfnsemmWv.
(11) PohminbpsS tbmKmI{]kv^pcWamb IpWvUen\nsb kp`tKmZbn hn

ncnpXv {inm IpetZhnbpw k]qPbpambp _hpw hyamIpw.

Ipam-cobw a{w [z\Xn N XsXm tbmjn-X-]cm Ipew Xyzm cuXn kv^pSXn N alm-\o-e-`p-PwKo XXx ]mXn-{hXyw `PXn Zl-cm-Im-im-I-ate kpJm-ko\m tbmjm `hkn `h kom-c-c-knIm {]Whmpcam alminhnkvt^mS\nemcw`n krjvSn {]{Inb `KhXnbpsS almhnt\mZ nsen IeminXv ]ip]Xnbmb a\pjy\nemWv. hnkvabmhlamb _rlXvin]cnWb fpsS Ahkm\n ]Xm{XIfpw ]`qXfpw DssS Xz{Kmaw Dfhmbn. {_mWvUmKXamb ]qqeinkzcq]n\v Xpeyambn `KhXn ]qamb kqvainkzcq]w ssIsmv `Khms tIfocwKamb ]nWvUmWvUn qe`qXamb `qan Xpcv amfapmn kcq]amv kpp]vXnbmp. almambmkzcq]nWnbpsS Cu Ibpd amWv PohcminbpsS DpwKirwKamb a\pjys JnXbpsS ImcWw. D]mk\bneqsS I]me[mcnbmb ]mmnbpsS knnbm \mK\p am{Xta hmoInsemfnncn p Cu \mKn\nsb ]pdp sImphv ambsb t`Znv BcnIamb XnYn]oTnt `{ZbpsS {]XnjvT \Sm\mIq.
(12) \mK\mb ]mccyfpsS imkv{XobX hnI]_amb _pn sImv t_mysSm

hpX. \nnI]amb tbmKmI{]bn am{Xta \mKcpsS hnm\ns km[pX t_mysSm\mIq.

7. \mbmcpsS ssP\_u ]mccyw

`mc-X-nse P\-XXn GXv PmXn-bn s]-h-cm-bmepw _lp-`q-cn-]-hpw ssP\-_u--\m-K-]m-c-cy-ns Ah-Im-in-I-fm-Wv. Ncn-{X-ns GtXm Ccp-fm Imes Bcy-kw-kw ]utcm-ln-Xyn\v A{]-am-ZnXzw \Inb Hcp kmaqly hyhsbbpw ]nWn-bm-f-m-scbpw krjvSn-s-Sp-p-Ibpw ]ucm-Wn-I-ambn \ne-\n kwkvImcn\p ta AXns kzXzw Xncndnbm-\m-Im hn[w kwkvIr-X-ns Hcp aqSp-]Sw AWn-bn-p-Ibpw sNbvXp. \psS imkv{Xo-bhpw Bym-n-I-hp-amb ]mc--cys tNmZyw sNp B aqSp-]-Ss \mw Nonsb-dn-tb Imew AXn-{I-anp Ign-p. ssP\-]m-c--cy-n \njn--ambn Hp-an-. Hcp ]s hfsc apv tbm-p-J-am-bn-o-Xp-sImv Cv \mw ImWp Aim-kv{Xo-b-X-bp-sS t]qv ssP\-]m-c--cys ssl-h-sa ]mc--cy-tmfw _m[n-n-n-. hkvXp-\n-jvT-ambn \mw a\-n-em-n-bm lc-m, taml-RvsP-Zm-tcmIfpsS Imew apX-ep tbmKm--I, imkv{XmI kwkvIr-Xn-bpsS `mc-X-nse bYm ]np-S-m ssP\cpw _u-cp-am-Wv. XrsmSnm\w t{Xw hIbmb ssh_vsskn hfsc {itbamb ]cmai e`yamWv.
29

The earliest people to make Kerala their home were the Dravidians. Cultural affinities (inheritance through women, snake cults) and anthropological evidence point to the Mediterranean origins (Nubia, Upper Egypt) of her Dravidian people. As the early settlers cleared thickly forested lands for farms and settlements, they set aside small areas of the original forest completely untouched. These became the earliest known sites of worship - the Kaavus - Dravidian Sacred Groves. In these groves, no flower was ever plucked, no tree felled and, most importantly, no snakes disturbed or harmed. This tradition continues today in most Nair households with the Kaavu being considered home to all Naagas (snakegods) and holy spirits. The first organised religions to reach Kerala came with the Jains and the evangelizing Buddhist missions of Emperor Ashoka in 300 - 200 BC. As in other parts of the country, these missionaries employed the then local language to spread their religion. JAIN TEMPLES (circa 300 BC to 500 AD) Jainism was introduced to the South in 300 BC by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 BC) and a Jain saint - Bhadrabahu. Evidence of the presence of Jains in Kerala comes from the indisputable fact that many Hindu temples in Kerala were originally Jain Shrines. For example, the presiding deity of Kudalmanikkam Temple near Irinjalakuda (Thrissur) is Rama`s younger brother Bharata. Originally it was Bharateshwara, a Digambara Jain saint. At Kallil, near Perumbavur, we can still see the images of Paraswanta, Mahavira and Padmavati; even though it is considered a Bhagavati temple today. Similarly, several places in Wayanad have Jain temples indicating that North Malabar was once a flourishing center of Jainism. According to the historian, William Logan, architecture of later Hindu temples in Kerala was influenced by the architecture of Jain temples. BUDDHIST TEMPLES (c.200 BC to 800 AD) Buddhism was introduced in Kerala by the missions sent out by Emperor Ashoka from Besnagar (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh). During this period, the Emperor`s son Mahindra headed a Buddhist mission to Sri Lanka. For more than 700 years, Buddhism flourished in Kerala. The Paliyam Copper plate of the Ay King, Varaguna (885-925AD) shows that at least in South Kerala, Buddhists continued to enjoy royal patronage even until 1000 AD. Many Hindu temples were once Buddhist shrines, including Vadakkunathan temple of Thrissur, Kurumba Bhagawathi temple of Kannur and the Durga temple at Paruvaserri near Thrissur. A large number of Buddhist images have been discovered in the coastal districts of Allapuzha and Kollam; the most important of these is the famous Karumadi Kuttan near Ambalapuzha. Revival of Hinduism by Brahmin scholars in 800-1000 AD gradually wiped out Buddhism from Kerala. Royal patronage by the Vaisnavite Kulashekara dynasty hastened this process. Many Keralites, like the Ezhavas (from Ezham, Tamil term for Sri Lanka), who were most likely Buddhists once, got absorbed in the mainstream Hindu fold. However the legacy of nearly a 1000 years was not so easily forsaken. Pallikudam or Ezhuthupally - the schools opened by Buddhists near their monasteries - continued to impart education (Pally is the Buddhist term for school). Buddha continued to be worshipped as Sastha or Ayyappa. Popular invocation of these deities, even today, harks back to Buddhist times Buddham Sharanam became Swami Sharanam!
30

While replacing old Buddhist shrines with new Hindu temples, the Brahmins, respecting sentiments of the neo-converts, relocated the older gods nearby, but away from the sanctum and outside the Pradikshina-patham or circumambulatory pathway. tIcfnse XoctZiPnIfmb Bepg, sImw {]tZifnse amthenc, Icp\mKn, `cWnmhv Cs\ ]e efn \npw _paXmhew_nIfptSXmb AhinjvS e`yambnpv. ]n tNcp esfmw Xs _paXns kzm[o\w kqNnnph bmWv. an, apn, Imncn, CSn, hmgn, ]gw]n, apnbn, ]n, ]npdw, ]npdpImhv, apXembhbpw ]p tNcp e ]pIpfw, ]p Imhv apXembhbpw _u]mccyw kqNnnphbmsWv kZminh kanpp. e AYhm kntemWn \nv IS hgnbmWv _paXw tIcfn {]NcnsXv kZminh ]dbpp. {InkvXphjw cmw \qmn Pohnncp {]kn _uNnI\mb \mKmp\ ]memSv kztZinbpw []me sX XncphnXmwIqdpImc\pw, _p tLmj19 a[yXncphnXmwIqdpImc\pambncppshv kZminh tcJsSpnmWpp. Bcy tZh, hkp_p, ZnmK, _p[Z (Iehq), hmKv`S (AjvSmwKlrZbw, XIgn) Fns\ {]kncmb ]e _ucpw tIcfobcmsW kXyw {_mWyn\v A[o\s tIcfw adp t]mbncnpp. Bbp thZn\v tIcfnepmb hnImkamWv _ucpsS asmcp kw`mh\. `Z\mKmp\ s\ _p`njKzc acpXzmaebn ]Xns\phjm ew XmaknncpXmbpw (cmksshti jnIkq{Xns Imhv) ]noSv tNeSp Xncphngmbn Atlw tkh\w sNbvXXmbpw Adnbphm Ignnpv. tNeSp IScn _p`njKzcmcpsS tI{ambncpp. AactImins Imhmb Aac knwl XIgnbnse _uhnlmcn hfscmew ]mncpXmbpw kntem hmkw AYhm _w ImcWambmWv knwl F hmep tNm\nSbmbsXpw kZminh ]dbpp. ssP\]mccyw kqNnnp AhinjvS DctIcfnemWv IqSpXsenepw, ZnW tIcfnse, Ihnbq, \mKtImhn, sNq, i_cnae apXemb e ssP\ ]mccyhpambn _aphbmsWv IcpXsSpp. kt{X s]mXpsh ssP\ ]mccyw kqNnnp AhinjvSfmWv. _ussP\NnIv tIcfnepw sImWnepw e`yamb {]Nmcn\p ImcWw ChnSps P\]ZfpsS \mKhwi_amWv. _p\pw almhoc\pw Pw sIm \mKhwi ns sXtmp {]bmWn\v kmyw hlnp BbncWn\v \mK]pcfpw A\]pcfpw t\m Xmgzc apX sXsmv hym]np InSpp. ssihimtb ]mccyn Xs \mKhwiPcmb _psbpw almhocsbpw NnIsf Bthin \mKmcmWv `mcXns ]e `mKpw Imemcn ssP\cmbpw _ucmbpw AdnbsXv. Xm{nIaXw asm BymnI Nnm[mcIpw aqe DdhnSambn Dc `mcXw apX at[yjy hsc \ne\nncppshXn\v ]pcmX\ \mKcnIXIfpsS AhinjvS kqNnnpp. kwkvIr-X-nse ]mWvUnXyw sImpw X-hn-X--fpsS C{-Pmew sImpw B[p-\nI a\-n\v XS-bn-Sm-\m-In-. hkvXp-X-Ipw C{n-bhpw AXo-{n-b-hp-amb A\p-`-h-pw hmKvtm-cWn sImv A{]-am-ZnXzw kn-am-bn-cp Imew Ign-p. tbmK-n--hrn
19

{InkvXphjw Amw \qmv. _ptLmj kntemWn {]hnncpXmbn ]cmainp ImWpp. Buddhism: A Modern Perspective By Charles S. Prebish
31

\ntcm[w Fv \mK-]-X-RvPen ]d--Xn\v t\hn-]-co-X-ambn hnI]m-I t]q-p-I sImv ]mhw a\p-jys\ ab-n-s-Sp-p Cs Bym-nI ]mc--cy-a \psS bYm ]mc--cyw. hkp-tZ-h-Ir-jvW-\n-eq-sSbpw _p-\n-eq-sSbpw ssP\-\n-eq-sSbpw \Ip-eo-i\n-eq-sSbpw I]n-e-\n-eq-sSbpw lcm Imew hsc, {InkvXp-hn\v apv aqhm-bn-c-amv hsc ]nnte InS-p ]mc--cy-n\v Ah-Im-in-I-fmWv \mw. ssl-h-sa t]cn-s\p {]kn? t]cp-I-fp-sSbpw AXn-cp-I-fp-sSbpw Ap-d-amWv lc-mbnse almtbmKn. t]cpw AXn-cp-Ifpw \psS hnI] krjvSn-bm-Wv. Fm t]cp-I-fnepw t]cn-m-Xn-cn-p GI ksb kmvXvIcn-p-I-bm-sWtm `mc-X-ns Bym-nI ktiw. cmjv{So-b-ns t]cp-hn-fn-Ipw t]mhn-fn-Ipw AXo-X-am-bn, a\-p-Isf CSp-nb Nnm-K-Xn-I-fn Xf-n-Sp hnI]-hrn-I-Xo-X-ambn kXys Adn-bp-hm B{K-ln-p-tm Pn\-s\-tm, _p-s\-tm, inhs\tm Hs-bp t]cp-I X\nsb amp t]mIp-p. \mam-Xo-X-amb ksb ey-ntev hnc Nqp Kpcp--m-cm-Wn-h-sc-mw. \psS ssP\-_u--]m-c--cy--sf-n IqSp-X-e-dn-bp--Xn-eqsS am{Xta D]-\n-j-p--fnse Zi-\--fp-sSbpw tbmK-im-kv{X-n-sbpw Ncn-{X-]-m-ew hkvXp\njvT-ambn \apv a\-nem-m-\m-Iq. Fmw sshZn-I-am-Wv, Aym--hn-Zy-bpsS sImSp-apSn i-cm-ssZz-X-amWv Fsms Nn-hrn sNbvX-h Aym-n-I-X-bpsS Hcp aqV-kzw ]Wn-Xon-p-v. kwL-Im-e-s-n \apv Hp-a-dn-bn-, ssP\--_u-ssih-kn--sc-n \apv Hp-a-dn-bn-, \Ip-eo-i\pw hncan-\pw hnm-\-`n-phpw \apv A\-`n-a-X-cm-Wv, i-cm-Nm-cy am{X-amsW-mw. ]utcm-ln-Xy-ns PoX km-\n Cu sImq-Wn \npw \mw ]pdp hcWw. \mK]mccyw \apv \Ipkt-i-an-Xm-Wv. tIc-f-n-sbpw `mc-X-n-sbpw bYm-X-Y-amb imkv{X]mc--cyhpw Bym-nI ]mc--cyhpw a\-n-emn \-Xns\ kzoI-cnv ]Xncns\ Xn [\yX tXSp-I-bmWv \mw sNt--Xv. PmXnbnepw t]cnepw tZl-nepw A`n-am-\n-p-Ibpw ss\\w Onn ikv{XmWn Fv -`K-hZvKoX Dcphn-Sp-Ibpw ac-Ws t]Sn-p-Ibpw sNp-p F{X henb sshcp-y-am-Wn-Xv. imkv{Xtm-Spw kXy-tmSpw AYhm hkvXp-X-I-tfm-Spap kao-]-\n t]mepw hnIr-X-Nn--hrnv hnt[-b-cm-sW--Xn\v CXn]cw Hcp sXfn-sh-mWv thXv? tbmK-im-kv{X-amWv `mc-Xob imkv{X--fpsS sImSp-ap-Sn. Fm `mc-Xob Zi-\--fp-sSbpw ASnm\w tbmK-hr-n-bm-Wv. Cs `mcXhpw temIhpw Im ssP\--_p-]X-RvP-enamtc-m henb Ah-Xm-c--tfm Fv \apv tXmn-tm-Ipw.

8. \mKsc iq{Zcmp kvarXnI

PmXn{_mW\pw Ahcm {Xnbcmbn thjw sIn\nnb tIcfnse cmPmmcpw, ibpw hbpw \mbsc iq{Zs\p hntijnnpp. kn.]n.cmakzman AcpsS {]kvXmhw {]knnbmXmWv. {_mWs Cu P]\w aqVXzns ]catImSnbmWv. PmXnbpsS t]cp \In a\pjys\ a\pjy \nnp, a\pjy\nse CuizcXzs \ntj[np alm]m]w hyhm]nXamnb {_mWs ]pWy{Kamb a\pkvarXn ]pjyan{XkpwKs hmgvNmev {InkvXphn\v apv cmw \qmn NasXmWv. NmWIys\p {]kn\mb [imkv{X\njvWmX\mb {_mW a\pkvarXn ]Tnncppshn iq{Z\mb N{Kp]vXaucys\ aK[bpsS N{Ihnbmbn Ahtcm[npIbntm? \mKhwiPcmb N{Kp]vXaucy\pw ]u{X\mb AtimIh\\pw Xn\nd {_mW aXs AIn \npXn\mWv ssP\aXsbpw _paXsbpw XfpsS Imefn AIagnp t{]mmlnnXv. `mcXnetmfantmfw ImWsSp t{Xfpw hnlmc fpsamw Xs \mKkwkvIrXnbpsS kw`mh\bmWv. I]ne\pw, Imiy]\pw, ]cipcma\pw,
32

]XRvPenbpw ]nwKf\pw, ]mWn\nbpw \mKmcmbncppsh kXyw adm ]mSnm XmWv.

]cipcma\pw iq{Z Xs
tIcfnse {_mWs Ghpw almb ]qPmhn{Klw tIctfm]n, tIcfamlmyw apXemb IrXnIf\pkcnv ]cipcma\msWtm? app kqNnnXp t]mse ]mckv cma AYhm t]jybneqsS h Cu {ZmhnUcmat\m Atlns ]npSmtcm BWv sXmen Idp {ZmhnU{_mWsc krjvSnv A]cmInepw sImWnepw tIcfn epw A[nhknnXv. PmXn tIcfn sImSnIpn hmgm ImcWw {_mWXzns taenbWn \mKcnjI Antlm{XnIfn \npw ISwhmnb aqVXbm \jvS sSpnb \mK]mccyamWv. `mcXns hnhn[ `mKfnembn BbncWn\v sFXn lyfpsS \mbI\mb ]cipcmas Ghpw {itbamb khntijX Atlw ssih\pw Bcy{Xnb hntZzjnbpw BbncppshXmWv. Bcy{Xnb hntZzjnbmb ssih Fs\ Bcy-{_mW\mIpw? lnamNe{]tZinse \naWvUv ]cipcma{Kmaw Fp {]knamWv. ]n.kn.Iiy]v AhnsS \inp ImWs hnjvWpt{Xsnbp Nbn C{]Imcw ]dbpp. That such a fate should befall Vishnu in a Parasurama village is rather intriguing. The explanation perhaps lies in Parasurama being a worshipper of Siva. He not only learnt from Siva the use of all the weapons of war but also got from him the Parasu (battle axe) his special weapon on account of which he came to be called Parasurama as distinct from Rama Dasarathi. The tilak on the forehead of his mask is three horizontal lines with a dot in the middle, a pure Saivite symbol. The Satluj-Ghaggar basin was a major theatre of Parasuramas exploits. He is said to have filled a number of lakes at Kurukshetra with the blood of Kshatriyas. Farther north was the Jamadagni Ashram and Renuka Lake and to it west he led the convoy of Brahmans along the Satluj for resettlement Cu sFXnly tIctfm]n t]msebp kao]Ime cN\If. ImfnZmk taLZqX n ]dbpXv Iiy]v Dcnncnpp. The cloud will now (after Prayaga) fly over the Himalayas. It will glimpse many sacred spots. Then it will go to the Krauncha Pass. Parasurama opened it up in the mountains with his arrows when he went on a visit to Kailasa. Since then the wild geese have passed through it on their annual flights to Manasa Lake KpPdmnse `rKpIw Bm\ambncp `mhm Imhocy\m ieyw sNs Xns\ XpSv hStmv ]emb\w sNbXpshpw ]noSv {Xnb\n{Klw sNbvX cma A]cmIw krjvSnv sXtmv {_mWsc \bnpshpw HsbmWv IYI. IYbpsS hniZmwi FpXsbmIs inh A\p{Klnp \Inb agp sImv Bcy{Xnb Ipe[zwkI\mbn `mcXamsI sImSpmpt]mse hoinbSn `mhcmas\s\ Bcy{_m W\mIpw? \mK]mccyw ]pjyan{XkpwK\p tijw ({In.ap. 180) cq]sSpIbpw {]Nmcn hcnIbpw sNbvX kwkvIrXkmlnXyn F{Xtmfw hnIrXamsp FXn\v Cv \mw Adnbp `mhNcn{Xnse bpn`wK aXnbmb DZmlcWfmWv. AXpt]mse sshZnI{_mWs\ A\pIcnpI hgn kzXzw \jvSs \mKhwiP\]Zv Ghpw \ DZmlcWamWv tIcfnsebpw XangInsebpw apw sXmen Idp {_mW. ]pjyan{X
33

kpwK\pw {_mWhXvIcns ]mckv \mK\mbncppshv an{X \mat[bw ASnm\ amn Dulnmw.

9. AlnO{Xw tIctfm]nbnse \mKd

tIctfm]nbn ImWp sFXnlyf\pkcnv ]cipcma (t]jymcma) AlnO{X n \npw Iqnsmp hhcmWv tIcfnse Idp {_mW. Adp]n \mep {Kma fembn ]mckv cma IpSnbncpnb Cu Idp ssIIfmemWv tIcfnse t{X \nnsXv. ]miz\mYs Imen\p apv Xs Bcyta[mhnXzw at[yjybn \npw h \mKbmZhcm \mtimpJamsncpXmbpw Ccppambn h Cu bmZhcpw Bcymcpapmb kulrZns IYbmWv IrjvW\pw Ipcp]mWvUhmcpambp kw_ fn ImWpsXpw Nnnm hIbpv. ssP\_u bpKn\v apv Xs kwJymhXn F ]mmens Xem\w {]knambncpp. kwJymhXn AlnO{Xw Fv {]knamIpXv ]miz\mYs ImemWv. [cWo{s\ kcmPmhv Xs ^Ww IpSbmn ]mizkzmans\ hagbn \npw \npw cntXmsSbmWv en\v AlnO{Xw Fv t]cp e`nsXv sFXnly kqNnnpp. _ps P\\n\p 264 hj apmWv ({In.ap. 831) ]miz\mYs P\\w. ]mckv \mY\pw ]mckv cma\pw Hs Htc ehpambn _sp hcpXn\m Ccppambn h \mK]cipcmas Xmhfw Hcp ]s AlnO{Xambncppshv Dulnmw. sXtmp Cu \mK]cipcmas ]ccIfp sS {]bmWnemImw kmRvOnbnsebpw AacmhXnbnsebpw apw \nnXnI ]nmep mbXv. AlnO{Xw cma{Kmaw Fpw Adnbsncpp. Iiy]tKm{Xw \mKtKm{Xsav {]knamWv. ]miz\mYs Imev aK[ apX ]ntamc`mKv Kmmcw hsc \mK m B[n]Xyw ]penbncpp. Imin D{Khwi\mKcmP[m\n Bbncpp. t\hmcnIfpw enOhnIfpw Xnep _hpw enOhnIfpw ssP\]mccyhpambp _hpw tIcfnse ]tKmU amXrIbnep t{Xfpw IqSpX ]T\KthjW BhiysSpp. {InkvXphn\p tijw 465mwamp hsc t\mfw enOhnIfpsS A[o\Xbnem bncpp.

10.

im-imw`h-]m-c-cyw

a\pjycminbpsS AymnI ]mccyns thcpI tXSp B[p\nI {]sb Ghpw A[nIw AXnibnnpIbpw sshysSppIbpw sNp A\pjvTm\amWv kmcm[\. khpw tbmKhpambp _w, khpw knNnInbpambp _w (FkvIpten bkv) kw AYhm \mKns IpWvUen\nbpambp _w, \mKhwins Dhw Chsbmw Xs sskhkckzXo \mKcnIXbnepw Xm{nI ]mccynepw thcqn \npp. DuztcXmb lcmbnse almtbmKnbn AymnI ]mccyhpw `mcXob amb imkv{X]mccyn\v ASnthcmb \nhnI]{]bpw DSnbncnpp. ]cip cma\pw ]miz\mY\pw almhoc\pw, _p\pw, ]mWn\nbpw, ]XRvPenbpw, ]nwKf\pw, \mKmp\\pw... Cs\ X{w apX _ucpsS iq\yhmZw hscbp kn]mccynep fhmb Nnm[mcIfpsS aqet{kmXv, BZnKpcphmbn, almKpcphmbn, almtZh\mbn a\pjy\n {]Xys {]]ns A[mcbmb, \nbmaI ssNX\yhntijamb inhin ZzzmIamb A\mcoizc\mWv. \mcnbmb {]IrXnbn ]pcpj\mbn Bthin AWvUI Smlns AlwImcw {]IrXnbpsS ambmhnemks AXnPohnv kzw kzXzw t_mys v _p\mIp {]{InbbmWv kn]mccyns ImX. ambsb, {]IrXnsb, Abmbn, Kpcphmbn t_mysv tbmtKizcnbmbn kmmXvIcnv AWvUISmln\v Axkbmb knkzcq]ambn kzbw Xncndnbp krjvSnbpsS ]caImjvTbnse Cu alm{]bmWw cmk
34

KpWmZnbmb sshhny ]Icp sshPmXyfmepw tZiIme\pkrXambpw A]m]w t`Zsv ImWpp. Cu hyXymk D]cnhhpw at\m\n_amb AhXcW n DfhmIpXpamWv.

\mKhwins Dhw
]iphmb a\pjy\n A`hnp \mKw Bkzcq]amWv. ]ip]Xnsb B_env kamp AxtNX\bpw t{]cWbpamWv \mKw. ]ip]XnbpsS asmcp t]cp am{XamWv \mK. \mKw \Kn, ]Xn hknph. ChnsS ]Xw tacp AYhm kptacp hmWv. \mK kptacnb\pamWv. tbmKhnZy FhnsSsbms {]Ncnpthm AhnsS \mKw ]iphn {]ISambn Dtcmcw _unIamb IgnhpI \In A\p{Klnp. Cu \mKns Axkzcq]amWv A\mcoizc. \mK{]XnjvTI bYmn \mKthjv SnXamb enwKhpw tbm\nbpamWv. X{sa ]Zw Xs kn]mccyn DfhmbXn\p ImcWw BkmmXvImchpw B_enp kXbpamWv. Im]menIs\ ]Zns hywKyw Pohnp BmshmIpp. Im]me[mcn Bmhns AYhm Bm\nbpsS {]XoIamWv. Im]menIcpsS ]cnWXnbmbmWv Nmth]Sbpw apw kmaqlnIamb AkvXnXzw IsnbXv. \m\mPmXnh]cambn Dcpncn ssPhinbpsS kvss{XWXv ]qcIXzw \Ip ]ucpjamWv A\mcoizc\mb a\pjy\nse iw`phmb ]pcpj. tamlhpw apnbpw sshcpyw \ndp a\ns\bpw ambsbbpw AXnPohnp iw`phns\ kn]mccyw ]mmnsbp hntijnnpp. AtX bpn XsbmImw \mKs\ t]cn\p ]nnepXv.

BNmcm\pjvTm\ {]mIrXa
{]mIrXsav hntijnnsSp \mbcpsS enwKtbm\nkmcm[\Ifpw acpambw XpSnb kmaqlyhyhbpw im, Xm{nI ]mccyns ]cnWXnIfmWv. kn I]nes kmwJyZi\w \mKcpsS D]mk\pw kmmXvImcn\pw e`yamb Xzmhnjv ImcamWv. ]pcmX\ambXp sImv {]mIrXsav [cnpI ]cam_amWv. AymknnI Hcp Imepw {]sb _mtlympJamp b{mcqVnXnIsf B{ibnncpn. \mKtbm\nenwKmcm[\sbnbp B[p\nI hoWhpw PpKp]vkm]camb kao]\hpw hnNn{Xamb {]XoImI hyJym\fpsamw ]ipP\yamb AYhm ]mi_amb at\m\ne bpsS {]kv^pcWamWv. AymhnZym]camb DmgvNIv AjvS]mifn \npw a\ns\ tamNnntXpv. . LrWm em `bw im PpKp]vkm tNXn ]an Ipew ioew XYm PmXncjvSu ]mim Cta kvarXmx ]mi_x ]ipx t{]mx ]miapx kzbw inhx Cu AjvS]mi at\m\nesb hnNn{Xamp hnI]ktXfmWv. \qncp]Xv tImSn P\kwJybp \psS almcmPyv P\kwJy atsXmcp cmPysbpw tXm]npw hn[w kvt^mS\mIambn A\p\nanjw hnpIbmWv. ]t, P\XbpsS _lp`qcn]w ]I shfnn JPqcmtlmhnse in]sf `np I]SkZmNmcns {Ibhn{Ibw \SphcmWv. Ccpfns adhn arKcXnbpw ]I shfnn XXv^eamb PqKp]vkX bpw sImv tbm\nenwKmcm[\sb honpIbpw sNp CcmmWv ]mccys {]mIrXsav hntijnnv {]XoImIX Btcm]nphm {ianpXv. kn]mccys nbp tUhnUv.Pn.sshns ]pkvXIn X{n\v {In.]n. ]Xns\mmw \qmn\p tijw Dmb ]cnjvIcWsn ]dbpXv {itbamWv.

35

In certain cases, all such transactions involving sexual fluids became wholly internalized and incorporated into the so-called subtle body (sukshma sarira). Here, all humans were viewed as essentially androgynous with sexual intercourse an affair between a female serpentine nexus of energy, generally called the kundalini and a male principle identified with Siva both of which were located within the subtle body. An intricate Physics of the subtle body its relationship to the brute matter of the gross body as well as to the universal divine life force within, the bipolar dynamics of its male and female constituents etc was developed in every tantrik school20.

Pohs ka{Kamb, `uXnIAymnI Xesf tbmPnnp tbmKmI imkv{Xk bpsS {]kv^pcWamWv tbm\nenwK\mK_nw_fpsS Bcm[\. A\p`hhpw, KWnXhpw, Pohs Axksbnbp `uXnIamb KthjWhpw X{n Aeo\amWv. lcm bnse DuztcXmb ]ip]Xn \mKhwins AXn{]mNo\amb Dhn\v sXfnhmWv. tbm\nenwK{]XnjvTI DuztcXmb almtbmKnbpsS \nXmcXnbpsS kqN\bmWv. inhm`ntLmcm`nx ih\nhlapWvUmn\nIsscx ]cw kombmw {]ISnXNnXmbmw lch[qw {]hnjvSmw kpjvSmap]cnkpctX\mXnbphXow kZm Xzmw [ymbn IzNnZ]n N \ tXjmw ]cn`hx Ipdp\cnI `oXnbpWp I]meImesfsmp \ndp ImWp NpSpImn, FcnSp NnXIp apIfn kZminhs\mw hn]coXcXnbm B\w sImp aZmekbmb \ns [ym\nph FmhcpsSbpw BZchn\v ]m{Xambn `hnpp. KXmkq\mw _mlp{]IcIrXImo]cnek nXw_mw ZnKzkv{Xmw {Xn`ph\hn[m{Xow {XnWb\mw ivaim\t Xevt] ihlrZn almImekpcX {]bpmw Xzmw [ymb P\\n PUtNXm A]n Ihn amXmth, {Xn`ph\ P\bn{Xnbmb \ns aqp IpItfmSp IqSnb ZnKw_cnbmb cq]w, AdpsSp Icfm AcmWaWn AcstmsS NpSedn ihinhlrZbn almIme\pambn hn]coXcXnbntesSpXp AInednbp km[I G{X _pn sIhs\nepw Ihnbmbn XocpXmWv. almtbmKnbpsS \nXmcXnbmWv krjvSnm[mcw. {]]ns \nbmaIinbmb A]cmPnX XqWnepw Xpcpnepw kwthZ\aXtbmsS \ndp \npp. As\bp kwthZ\ns clkyw hlnp \nKqVhnZybmWv X{w. `{ZImfnbpw X{hpw \mbcpsS P\\acW N{Ins \nKqVen]nbnep hniIe\hpw hnhcWhpamWv. A]cmPnXbmb `KhXnbmWv PohmssNX\yw. Cu PohmssNX\yw almIme\pw almtbmKnbpamb ss`ch\nemWv hnebw {]m]npXv. CXc ]iptbm\nIfntev kw{IanmsX IpetZhnbm bn A]cmPnXbmbn Insbcnbp NnXp apIfn hnebw {]m]npp. KXmkq\mw _mlp{]IcIrXImo]cnek nXw_mw ZnKzkv{Xmw {Xn`ph\hn[m{Xow {XnWb\mw ivaim\t Xevt] ihlrZn almImekpcX {]bpmw Xzmw [ymb P\\n PUtNXm A]n Ihn amXmth, {Xn`ph\ P\bn{Xnbmb \ns aqp IpItfmSp IqSnb ZnKw_cnbmb cq]w, AdpsSp Icfm AcmWaWn AcstmsS NpSed n

20

David Gordon White, The Alchemical Body, Siddha Traditions in Medieval India, The University of Chicago Press, 1996

36

ihinhlrZbn almIme\pambn hn]coXcXnbntesSpXp km[I G{X _pnsIhs\nepw Ihnbmbn XocpXmWv. inhm`ntLmcm`nx ih\nhlapWvUmn\nIsscx ]cw kombmw {]ISnXNnXmbmw lch[qw {]hnjvSmw kpjvSmap]cnkpctX\mXnbphXow kZm Xzmw [ymbn IzNnZ]n N \ tXjmw ]cn`hx

AI

nednbp

Ipdp\cnI `oXnbpWp I]meImesfsmp \ndp ImWp NpSpImn, FcnSp NnXIp apIfn kZminhs\mw hn]coX cXnbm B\w sImp aZmekbmb \ns [ym\nph FmhcpsSbpw BZchn\v ]m{Xambn `hnpp. CuhI kvXpXnKoXsfmpw kmlnXyk]cybpsS `mKambn hnIrX`mh\bn Pw sIm X. temIv \m\mhn[amb tImSntImSn PohPme acnp aSnbptm Xobnsecnbp icocsfpsImv `mcXn am{Xsav \mw NnnWw? AeIvkm Xinebn \npw Iqnsmpt]mb IeymW ss`ch {In.ap. 323mw Bn s]gvknt]mfnkv \Kcn shv kzbw BmlpXn \SpIbpmbn. temIw I almpXfnsemmWnXv. alm\mb amkntUmWnb N{Ihnbpw {Koknsebpw t]jy bnsebpw Ames alm]WvUnXmcpw tbmmfpw kmn \nshbmWv Iet\mkv Fv {Kov Ncn{XImcm hnfn Xinebnse \mKtbmKn, AeIvkmdpsS tk\m \mbI\mb tSmfanbpsS tat\mn Xmdmnb NnXbn Bk\\mbXv. Xobmfn nbtm almtbmKnbpsS I]oenI t]mepw Nenns{X. {In.ap. \memw \qmn Xinebnse Cu tbmKnv Pw \Inb kmtXnIhnZy FhnsS \npw e`yambn? lcmbnse DuztcXmb ]ip]XnbpsS ]npSbt AeIvkmv aqp hjw Kpcphmbncp kzbw BmlpXn \Snb Cu AtLmcnbn \mw ImWpXv? `mcXNcn{X nse sshZnI]mccynt\m, _ussP\]mccytm, assXnepw hnNmc[mc tm, A\pjvTm\]Xntm kXnsb A\pkvacnnp Hcp almkwkvImcn\v Iet\mkn s\ tbmKy\mpI km[yambncptm? Iet\mkns\ ]pnp B[p\nIXbmbncnmw Cv \mbcpsS apJap{Z. ]s, Xncp\mhm bpw ImbwIpfhpw am\hmSnbpsamw \mbcpsS BmlpXnIfpsS hocIYI \ndp \np efmWv. \mbcpsS ]mccysn Hcp hntZinsbgpXnb Ipdnv Cs\n ImWpXv hfsc {itbambXn\m ChnsS DcnpIbmWv. I have been on the subject of the Nairs of Kerala for the last one decade and hence am some sort of authority on the same. At least better read than most Indians on the subject and at least most Nairs. The origins of the Nairs are shrouded in mystery, but from most ancient accounts, cultures and customs, it can be safely inferred that the Nairs are Scythian of descent. The fact that recent tests indicate presence of the warrior gene 'dopamine' in them as in case of other Scythians attests to this fact. As a race they are distinct from the prevailing Aryan or Dravidian races of India. The classic chaturvarna as it exists in North India never applied in the South and hence any later caste classification is a work of fiction or more truly non-sense. Warfare was the chief occupation of the Nairs since the last two millenia plus. Most ancient works give a very credible account of the Nairs as the martial nobility of the land. Even the French Captain Mahe De La Bourdeannis, an accomplished warrior himself speaks very highly
37

of the fighting spirit of the Nairs. The above is inspite of the fact that the French fleet was defeated by local Nairs and hence had to take refuge in modern day Tamil nadu. The most important fact attesting to their noble military virtues is the fact that for over two thousand years they were able to maintain the integrity and security of their land and culture unlike the rest of India. The only race to have decisively defeated the Nairs is the British. The British hence colluded with the neo-converts to suppress these inherently rebellious traditional warlords and succeeded. Most Indian history is communism inspired or secualrism inspired or worst of all; a thoughtless copy of English history. The British Army (not native infantry) performed poorly against the Nair warlords and the Nairs considered it below their dignity to serve under the British and hence most Nair history in Kerala and India is blanched out. Otherwise what explains grand celebrations of the 1857 revolt wherein a single intoxicated Mangal Pandey took no significant British casualty & yet is considered a national hero? The subsequent attack on the English residency was a military fiasco. Later reinforcements of the British and Sikh troops destroyed every ounce of Indian military muscle. The humiliation and crushing were complete. The Indian lossess was large and shameful. Victory, if any clearly was with the British. The Indians were impaled or hung and the females raped by rapacious native troops.Not much to celebrate about. Maybe, it would make more sense to look for celebrations down south where the Fussiladers and the other English highlanders fared poorly against Nair chieftans as also Moslem Moplahs. The toll the Nairs took on the British is much higher than any recorded in Hindoostan of those times. Indian culture is much more than hip gyrating dances and semi-nudes. Look around. You see it & yet miss it. Pity... Absolute Pity....21 in]mbn elfsb tIcfn Dmbnp {_nojv hncp bpfpambn XmcXaysSpp hcnI Gsd {itbamWv. \mWwsI Cs \mbmv B hgnv Nnnm t]mepamIpn. \mbv Cv kzXzamb BymnIXbn. ISwsIm {_mWKoX bpambn \mKIrjvWs ]nKmanI \mWwsIp Pohnpp. A]cmPnXbmb A {_mWvUnepw ]nWvUmWvUnepw hnizh]pmbn \ndp \n pp. Ah XsbmWv \mKcq]nWnsbv BKa hyampp. ]nWvUmWvUn\p ]nmep kwkvIrXn e`yamb hnhcWw ]pcmX\amb imkv{Xns ]Ip am{XamWv. {XntImtW aZ\mKmtc enwKcq]o atlizcx ambmin atlim\n `pPKmImccq]nWo Xssbh thjvSnXw enwKw km{XnhebmIrXnx enwKn{Zw XZzt{W kammZy nXm kZm aqem[mcnXamb NXpf]nse Ima{XntImWn enwKcq]nbmb atlizcs\ aqc Npmbn hfbw sImv enwKns Zzmcw aqSn kcq]nWnbmbn ambm`KhXn \nesImpp. Cu kcq]nWnbmb almambsb Asbv shdpsX Hcp t]cnp hnfnX hnfnm hnfn tIp Abmb Cu almKpcphmWv av kmmXvImcn\p hgnsbmcpp Xv. {_mWvU]nWvUmWvUv AKXambncnp A]cmPnXbpsS kmmXvImc amWv ims apn. As\ kmmXvImcw knnhcpsS BobtXPmWv kn]oT fnse sISmhnfpI. kmmXvImcns amnse int{kmXpIfmWv a{.

\mbcpsS IpessZhw `{ZImfn

21

http://indiaculture.net/talk/messages/128/12469.html?1274086408
38

`{ZImfnv kvXpXn ]dp sImv Xmew Cu teJ\w D]kwlcnpIbmWv. k-tZhmw-i-kw-`q-X-bmb a{-cq-]n-Wn-bmb `hm\nbmWv aln-jm-kp-c-an\n. \hm--co-kn-n{]-Z-amb kn-Ip-RvPn-Im-kvtXm{Xn `K-h-Xnsb hnti-jn-n-p-Xv {in-p-I: Hmw \akvtX cp{Z-cq-]nssWy \akvtX a[p-an\n \ax ssIS-`-lm-cnssWy \akvtX aln-jmn\n \akvtX ipw`-lss{y N \nipw-`m-kp-c-Lm-Xn\n Pm{KXw ln alm-tZhn P]w knw Ipcpjz ta sFwImco krjvSn-cq-]mssb {lowImco {]Xn-]m-enIm oImco Ima-cq-]nssWy _oP-cqt] \tamkvXp tX NmapWvUm NWvU-LmXo N ssbImco hc-Zm-bn\o hns N A`-bZmw \nXyw \a-kvtX a{-cq-]nWn \mbmscbpw `{ZImfnsbbpw ]n D]\yknptm a[yXncphnXmwIqdnse `{ZImfnmhpI sfnbpw Ahbnse DhmtLmjsfnbpw ]SbWnsbnbpsams HmnmsX ]ntm? Cv Cu hcnIsfgpXptm [\pamknse AamhmknbmWv. Pohs tjmUi Ie, A]cmPnXbmb `KhXn, bptmpIXbpsS cminbmb, ]SbWnbpsS cminbmb [\p hn ]nsImp Zn\w. ], aWnae, AtImhn Cs\ aqv \ZoXSfnembn Ingv ]mgn apX ]Snmdv ]\bmImhv hscbpw hSv tImbw apX Ingv i_cn aehscbpw ]SbWnbpsS Xmfw Gphmp PePohcminI AXn]pcmX\Imew apX \ne\nncpp.

IenbpKmZnbpw `{ZImfnbpw ]SbWnbpw

Iensb Imfnbmp hymIcW hymJym\fpv. eftbmct`Zhpw Hcp ZoLhpw aXnbtm? hymIcWn\pw `mjm]camb ]cnWXnIpw AXoXambn `{ZImfnsb IenbpKmZnbpambn _sSpp sXfnhmWv ]SbWn. {]tXyInpw sskmntIXcamb \ncoW]camb tPymXnximkv{XsfnhmWv ChnsS N sNsSpXv. ]SbWnbpw `{ZImfnmhpIfnse CXc Dhfpw {][m\ambn Ipw`amknemWv \SpXv. kqcy `qansb ]cnWbnp amkamWv Ipw`w. `qantZhn Ipw`amkn K`w [cnv hrnImynse NXpin AYhm kucKW\bn hrnIw apXmw XobXn ]pcmWfneqsS {]kn\mb, \cImkpcs\ {]khnpp. Cu \cI XsbmIWw ]S bWnbnsebpw apSntbnsebpsams \mbI\mb ZmcpIs IYm]m{XcN\bnse ASnm\ bpn. Bkpcnbpw A]cmPnXbpamb `{ZImfntbmtSpapn BmWp Pbnm km[npI? BmlpXnsb knm\p`hns IYmcq]amWv `{ZImfnbpsSbpw ZmcpIsbpw IY. Ipw`amknsebpw ao\amknsebpw `cWnbpsS hntijXp ImcWw `cWn \{Xw BIminse {XntImWw AYhm tbm\ncq]amsWXmWv. Ipw`amknse Aamhmkn ]cnKWnm NXbw, ]qcpmXn, DrmXn, tchXn, AizXn, `cWn Cs\ Ggmw ZnhkamWv `cWn \{Xw hcnI. Cu GgpZnhkfnembmWv ]ebnSpw ]SbWnbpsS BtLmjw. Ipw``cWnbpsS {]tXyI {]m[m\yw ]SbWnbpsS Zn\ hyampp. hnZymkmKdns ]T\n \Inbncnp XobXnI kw_n hnhcWw {inpI. IS\nmhnepw Fgpaq ]\ap Imhnepw asmp `{ZImfot{Xnepw Fm hjhpw \nnXZn\nemWv ]SbWn \SpXv. IS\nbn taSw Hn\mcw`np NSpI ]p Znhkw \op \npp. Fgpaq t{Xn taSw Hn\v NSpI
39

Ahkm\nhn[w Ggp Znhkw aps NSpI Bcw`npw. asmv tZhot{X nemIs ao\w Ccp]nbn\mcw`np NSpI taSw aqn\mWv Ahkm\np Xv. taSw Hmw XobXnbpsS {]m[m\yw Ienhjmcw`amWv. ao\wtaSw cmin kn Bkv]Zambm Wv apIfn ]d aqv epw XobXn \nbnsSpXv. sXten hnbn Imhv `KhXot{Xn ao\`cWnv cp Znhkw apv Bcw`nv ao\`cWn \mfn NSpI kam]npp. ]pmSv tZhot{Xn Ipw``cWn \mfpw \mcm\v Ipw``cWnv ]pZnhkw aps Bcw`nv Ipw``cWn \mfn NSpI kam]npp. hStcn apymhn Ipw``cWn apX ao\w AizXn hsc

`cWnv ]SbWnbpambp _w tIcfn apfXsXn\v sXfnhmWv Xmsg \Ip DcWn. `KhXnbpw `cWnbpw tbm\nbpambn _s t]cpIfmWv. `Kw = tbm\n, BImi nse `cWn \{Xns BImchpw tbm\nbmbn {]knamWv.
The general scholarly consensus has been that the Yogini cults so foundational to early Tantra emerged out of an autochthonous non-Vedic Indian source. This analysis is of a piece with a more general view of Tantra; that it rose up out of the soil of India to graft itself onto more elite orders of precept and practice. This argument takes two forms. The first maintains that goddess traditions and Tantra are forms of indigenous or tribal religion that welled up to the surface of the religious practices of urban and rural elites in the late Gupta and early medieval periods. The second finds strong iconographic evidence for cults of multiple goddesses, Siva Pasupati, and a number of other fixtures of later Hinduism in the clay seals of the Indus Valley civilizations (ca. 2500-1750 B.C.E.). Here, the argument is that these cults persisted in spite of the Indo-Aryan incursions but were occulted from the scriptural and sculptural records for over two thousand years by triumphant Aryanism. As for the origins of multiple goddesses or of a single great Goddess, many scholars have seen evidence for their cults in Indus Valley seals that portray a female figure with a lotus stem emerging from her vulva; the sexual union of a buffalo and a woman (prefiguring the south Indian cults of the great Goddess as spouse of the Buffalo Demon); and of a grouping of seven female figures, on the so-called Mohenjo-daro "fig deity seal," whose connection with the Krttikas of later Indian mythology has been demon strated by Parpola. Beyond this, as Parpola has also

shown, the Sumerian word for "constellation" is expressed through a pictogram comprising three stars. In the post-Vedic tradition, Apabharani, the last of the twenty-eight asterisms or lunar mansions (naksatras) - a configuration also borrowed from Harappan civilization - is called a yoni. Much earlier the Rg Veda (RV) calls a fire altar composed of three stones the "belly of Agni." Svetambara Jain traditions consider the Apabharani asterism to have the form of a vulva (bhaga), while Digambara Jain traditions describe the same asterism as having the form of "a fireplace consisting of three stones." In Tantric imagery, triangles composed of three points generally represent the yoni; and in goddess traditions of northwest India, Vaisno Devi, one of the Seven Sisters who is considered to be an aspect of the great Goddess, is worshiped in the form of three stone outcroppings called "lumps" (pindis) that represent the three members of the Sakta trinity: Mahalaksmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali.22 kptadnbcpsSbpw lcmbpsSbpw Imetmfw Bgvp \np bpnbn A[njvT amWv ]bpsS Icbnse ]SbWn FXv hnkvabw P\nnp hkvXpX At?

22

David G White, Kiss of the Yogini

40

ImjnIhpw Btbm[\hpamb ]mccyhrnIfpsS kwKaw ]SbWnbn ZriyamWv. katcmpIcmb Hcp P\XbpsS apJamWv ]SbWn shfnhmpXv Fv hnZymkmK ]dbpp. IfcnbneqsS Bnp A`ymkapdIfpw hmfpw ]cnNbpap]tbmKnp ]bShpIfpw ]SbWnbn HgnpIqSm\mhmhbmWv.23 Adp]n\mep IeIfpsS ka\zbw ]SbWnbnepspw hnizknsSpp. Adp]n \mep hnZyIfpw X{fpw Xm{nIhmbns `mKamb Nnm[mcbmWv. Ducmfn Xpepw _s \r\mSyfpsamw Xs ssih]mccyw kqNnnpp. s]mXpsh, ]SbWnbpambn _s BNmcm\pjvTm\sf hnZymkmK {]mIrXsam Wv hntijnnpXv. tIcfnse KthjW]T\fpsS Dmnmbvabpw CSpnb N{IhmfhpamWv Acw AhmkvXhnIamb \nKa\p ImcWw. ]pcmX\ambsXmw {]mIrXamIWsan. KWnXhpw tPymXnximkv{Xhpw B[p\nIKWnXn\v ASnd bmb ZimwijjvSywikwJymt{iWnbpw ]pcmX\Imes tbmKmKam[njvTnX kwkvIr Xnbn cq]w sImhbmWv. hnZymkmK \Ip Ncn{X]mew {itbamWv. _n.kn.1500 \pw 1000 \panSp Imev saUntd\nb {]tZip \nv klym{Znbnte pw Xmgzcbntepw P\{]hmlapmIppv. Ch AXnthKw {ZmhnUcn Aenp tNcpIbmWpmbXv. Cu {]hmlns AyLnsenbhcmWv tIcfn Ccpns D]tbmKw sImphsXv IcpXsSpp. ImSpshnsfnv Irjnbmcw`nXv {ZmhnUhmcpw Ccppamsbnb saUntd\nb hhpw kwtbmPnsXmsSbmbncnWw. Xobnv ImSp sXfnv Ccpmbp[ D]tbm Knv Irjn sNbvX ChcpsS ImetmsS A ssZhmcm[\ AXniamIpp. {]mNo\ tKm{XP\XbpsS ta Ccpns D]tbmKadn Cu P\X {]mamWyw t\Sn. _n.kn. \memw \qmmIptmtgpw ChcpsS A ssZhw Imfn F t]cp kzoIcnppv. hmfpambn \nesImp Imfn AtbmbpKsbmWv {]Xn\n[m\w sNpXv.... kmaqlnIamb amfpsS ASnm\n am{Xw A\pjvTm\sf hymJym\np coXnbmWv Ccw \ncoWfpsS ]nn. Ccpns `uXnIamb IseneqsS Imfnsb hniIe\w sNp CSpnb Nnm[mcI a\pjys BymnI hym]mc p t\sc ISpp. B[p\nItm t{]mzeamb Hcp A[ymnIk, Hcp BcnI{]]w ]qnIv DmbncpXv Isphm B[p\nI KthjI\v Ignbpn.

\mKcpsS BcnI{]]w

app kqNnnXp t]mse \mKcpsS BcnI{]]ns, kn]mccyns {]kv^pc WamWv ]e tZhXmk]fpsSbpw ]nnepXv. {In.ap. \memw \qmnemWv ImfnbpsS P\\sav Ncn{Xw Ipdnp KthjI\v `mcXobZi\fpsS Bhn`mhImesn bmsXmcp Xnhpan. I]nes kmwJyw _uNnp apv Xs {]mhn`hnncppsh tXm kn]mccyw kw_n ]mmXycpsS IsepItfm ssZhns kzw \mn {insSpn. tZhXamcpsS hnNn{Xhpw hyXykvXhpamb cq]fpsS GIoIcW
23

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