Lecture 8 : Radar Transmitters and Antenna

Objective - - - - 8.1 Transmitter Introduction and Functions

8.2 Klystron Transmitters 8.3 Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) Transmitters 8.4 Crossed-Field Amplifier (CFA) Transmitters 8.5 Magnetron Transmitter 8.6 Solid State Transmitter 8.7 Modulator 8.8 High-Voltage Power Supplies 8.9 Transmitter Vacuum and Cooling Systems 8.10 Transmitter Monitoring and Testing 8.11 Transmitter Parameters 8.12 Microwave Components 8.13 Waveguide 8.14 Radar Antenna 8.15 Sidelobe Suppression Technique 8.16 Reference
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8.1 Transmitter Introduction and Functions

Radar Transmitter - Functions

generate the EM signal for target illumination. tow type : coherent amp & non-coherent amp

- Block Diagram

<Radar Transmitter Generic Diagram>

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8.1 Transmitter Introduction and Functions

Transmitter Type

- O-type : linear beam - M/W amplifying tubes,klystrons, traveling wave tubes, twystrons M-type : crossed-field M/W amplifying tubes, crossed-field amp(CFAs), magnetrons Solid-state m/w amp
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8.1 Transmitter Introduction and Functions

Transmitter Characteristics
< Transmitter Characteristics >

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M/W Tubes & Components

M/W tubes (8.2) Klystron transmitter. (8.3) Traveling wave tube(TWT) transmitter. (8.4) Crossed-field amp(CFA) transmitter. (8.5) Magnetron transmitter. (8.6) Solid state transmitter. (8.7) Modulator. (8.8) High voltage power supplier. (8.9) Transmitter vacuum and cooling systems. (8.10) Transmitter Monitoring and testing. M/W component (8.11) Duplexer, Signal limiter, Magic tee, Rotary joints, isolator, Directional coupler. Wave guide freq. band

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8.6 Solid State Transmitter

Characteristics - The advantages of solid-state devices over vacuum tubes are

well known and include lower voltage requirements and high reliability

- Their primary disadvantages are low power output per device

and relatively poor operation at higher microwave frequencies

- Radar transmitters made up of solid-state devices are reserved

for the lower frequency bands and contain many devices operating in parallel

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8.6 Solid State Transmitter

Many different types of solid state device - Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)

conventional junction (NPN and PNP) transistors used primarily as amplifiers are primarily amplifiers

- Field-effect transistors (FETs) - Transferred-electron devices (TEDs) - Avalanche transit-time (ATT)

are forward-biased semiconductor devices devices are complex diodes operating in reverse breakdown

Solid-state devices can make up the entire transmitter in radars

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8.6 Solid State Transmitter

Solid-state transmitter configurations

< Solid-State Transmitter Configurations >

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8.6 Solid State Transmitter

The block diagram of a transmit/receive active array module patterned after PAVE PAWS

< A Typical Transceiver Module (modeled after PAVE PAWS) >

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8.10 Transmitter Monitoring and Testing Test and Monitoring

< Typical Transmitter Test and Monitoring >

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8.11 Transmit Parameter Power

- It is measured by sampling a fraction of the power output and
using an RF power meter
PT PT (dBm) = PM (dBm) + dccf(dB) + L C (dB) = the tranmitter speak power (dBm) PM = the (Average) power meter reading (dBm) dccf = the duty cycle correction factor (dB - sec Ch. 3) LC = the loss from the monitoring port to the meter sensor (dB)

Frequency - It is made more difficult by pulsing

Counters : CW signals, the most accurate meter Absorption wavemeters : Pulsed signals, less accurate, harder to use than counter
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8.11 Transmit Parameter

Pulse width and shape - Waveform monitors sample RF from the transmitter,
One class of detector often used is square-law detector.

demodulate it, and display the envelope on an oscilloscope.

Spectrum - It tells much about how well the transmitter is operating - The spectrum depends on the wave being transmitted
< Gated CW Spectra >

= 2/B N - N : the gated CW pulse width (seconds)

B N - N : null - to - null bandwidth of the main spectral lobe (Hertz) Hankuk Aviation Univ. 12

8.11 Transmit Parameter VSWR and Return Loss

- Reflections are measured using a dual directional coupler,
giving an attenuated sample of the forward power and sampling the reflected wave
(Reflection Coefficient) = the reflected voltage / the incident voltage VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) = the maximum voltage / the minimum voltage = (1 + | |) / (1 - | |)

Transmitter, Modulator, and HVPS DC and Pulse monitoring - Most transmitters have built-in test points to be used for
monitoring and testing DC and DC pulse voltages and currents

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8.14 Radar Antennas

Parameters - Radiation pattern & directivity - Beamwidth & length efficiency - Aperture : effective area & efficiency - Gain & Efficiency. - Sidelobe definition & effects. - Field zones / Polarization Functions - Act as a transducer & impedance match between Tx and

propagation-medium & between the medium and receiver Provide gain & steer the Tx power to the desired angular position
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Radiation Pattern
Radiation pattern
dipole length = 2

Radar target Clutter Communications Secondary radar ECM Square of one-way pattern (Gain 3dB B/W 6dB B/W) (Sidelobe lower double)

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Antenna Effective Length

3dB = D eff
= 180 (radians )

where Deff = effective length of antenna

Deff (deg)

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Effective Area & Beam Shape

Deff ( AZ ) = L ( AZ ) D( AZ )

Deff ( EL ) = L ( EL ) D( EL ) 180 3( AZ ) = D eff ( AZ )

3( AZ )

(radians ) , = Deff ( AZ )

(deg)

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Antenna Sidelobe Effect

Sidelobes & sidelobe effects

: Ultra low sidelobe ant. sidelobe signal suppression tech. SLB sidelobe blanking. CSLC coherent sidelobe cancellation.

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8.14 Radar Antennas

Antenna Field Zone
- Flatness : for practical purpose, less than 16 of curvature. -Fan field : longest distance to any point on plane of ant.must be less than R + 16

< Near-and Far-Field Waves >

- Near field : range less than far field range.

RFF = 2 D
2 2

D 2 + R =R + 16 2

< Geometry for Solving Far-Field Distance >

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D2 2 R 2 + R2 = R2 + + 4 16 16 2 2 2 R D = R = 2D 8 4

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8.14 Radar Antennas

Arrays of Discrete Elements - Arrays

Linear array one element dimension Planar array two element array dimension Conformal array- conforms to the shape of object (mounted the nose of a/c or missile)

< Array/Continuous Antenna Equivalence >

- Array & continuous antenna - Same shape, D, area, illumination function, frequency - Element pacing < 2

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8.14 Radar Antennas

- Beam pattern of array

< Array Multiplication Principle >

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8.14 Radar Antenna

Radar Antenna Configurations

<Radar Antenna Types>

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8.14 Radar Antenna

Reflector Antennas
(a) Focal point feed reflector antenna - The focal point feed reflector antenna uses as a reflector a parabola of rotation with the feed at the paraboloids focus. - Illumination is set by the feed antennas beam pattern only ->Difficult to control - Aperture blockage -> Depend on Feed and its supports

<Focal Point Feed Reflector Antenna>

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8.14 Radar Antenna

Reflector Antennas
(b) Offset Feed Antenna - The offset feed reflector is a focal point feed antenna with part of - the reflector remove. - Purpose -> Reduce or eliminate aperture blockage - Illumination control -> Difficult (c) Cassegrain Reflector Antenna - The cassegrain reflector system uses two reflectors, the primary being a parabloid and the secondary being an hyperboloid. - Illumination control -> Difficult , Very large aperture blockage - The aperture Blockage -> Large

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8.14 Radar Antennas

- Array of angular offset

< Array Beam Formation - Equal Phase Element >

r = S sin : difference in distance between adjacent element

from the plane of the array to the observation point 2 S = S sin = 360 sin

: phase for extra distance steering angle sin = 2S

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8.14 Phase-Steered Array

Electronically Phase Steered Arrays

Conventional Array with Phase Shifter

Space-Fed Lens Array

Reflector Array

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8.15 Sidelobe Suppression Technique

Low sidelobe antenna
- Illumination function -> Critical (Array antenna -> Good control of illumination) - Aperture blockage -> Avoid

Sidelobe Blanking (SLB)

<Sidelobe Blanking Principle>

<Sidelobe Blanking System>

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8.15 Sidelobe Suppression Technique

Coherent Sidelobe Cancellation (CSLC)

<Coherent Sidelobe Cancellation Principle>

<CSLC System>

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8.16 Reference
[1] Radar Transmitters by G. W. Ewell, McGraw-Hill, 1981 [2] Microwave Tubes by A. S. Gilmour, Artech House, 1986 [3] Passive and Active Microwave Circuits by J. Helszajin, John Wiley & Sons, 1978 [4] Transmission Lines and Waveguide by L. V. Blake, John Wiley & Sons, 1969 [5] Antenna Engineering Handbook by R. C. Johnson and H. Jasik, McGraw-Hill, 1984 [6] Antenna Theory and Design by W. L. Stutzman and G. A. Thiele, John Wiley & Sons, 1981 [7] Aspects of Modern Radar by E. Brookner, Artech House, 1988 [8] Fields and Waves in Modern Radio by S. Ramo and J. R. Whinnery, John Wiley & Sons, 1953
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Lecture 9 : Receiver & Display

Objective - - - - 9.1 Receiver - 9.2 Receiver Type - 9.3 RF Processor - 9.4 RF Attenuator & Filter , Amplifier - 9.5 Mixer - 9.6 Local oscillator - 9.7 AFC & COHO - 9.8 IF Amplifier - 9.9 Demodulator - 9.10 Radar Receiver Example - 9.11 Display - 9.12 Reference

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9.1 Receiver
Receiver
General Radar echo signal from antenna: -20dBm ~ -100dBm - very low amplitude of for minimal detectable target Thus, its amplitude must be increased by the receiver amp.

<Basic Functional Receiver Block Diagram>

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9.2 Receiver Type

Receiver Type
*Crystal Video Receiver - Early receiver type. - Amplified & immediately converted to baseband freq. - Advantage : Simple Inexpensive - Disadvantage : Overwhelming standpoint *Homodyne Receiver - Amplified & immediately converted in a mixer baseband frequency - Advantage : Simple - Disadvantage : Poor sensitivity Inability, Difficult to suppress interference
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<Crystal Video Receiver>

<Homodyne Receiver>

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9.2 Receiver Type - Superheterodyne Receiver

Superheterodyne Receiver
* Superheterodyne Receiver - Main signal amplification & filtering at an intermediate frequency - Easier & better filter & amplifier design - Advantage : Simply changing the frequency * Image response -> Suppress for two reason 1) A second receiver bandwidths worth of noise (SNR reduce) 2) Another bandwidth (ECM-Image jamming)

<Superheterodyne Receiver>

<Image-Reject Filter>

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9.2 Receiver Type - Superheterodyne Receiver

Superheterodyne Receiver Type

<Double-Conversion Superheterodyne Receiver> <Triple-Conversion Superheterodyne Receiver>

Intermediate frequency -> too high -> Design of the IF amp. & filter is complicated -> For this reason, multiple-conversion superheterodyne receiver were developed

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9.3 RF Processor
RF Processor

<RF Processor>

* Noise Figure / Noise Factor : noise figure is a measure of how much noise is added by the system
F= ( S / N )in S / N at the input of sys = ( S / N )out S / N at the output of sys

* Noise Figure (a) system temperature (b) Ant. Trans line (c) Receiver equivalent temp

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9.3 RF Processor
Noise Factor of Multi-Stage Amplifier
The overall nose factor is

FT = F 1 + [( F 2 1) / G1] + [( F 3 1) /(G1G 2)] + .... F = the overall noise factor ( power ratio) Fn = the noise factor of the nth stage Gn = the gain of the nth stage

(10 1)

<Noise Factor in Multi-Stage Amplifiers>

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9.10 Radar Receiver Example

Search Receiver

<Search Receiver 1>

<Search Receiver 2>

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9.11 Radar Display

Radar Display Summary
(1) A-scope : range vs amplitude(linear or log) (2) A/R scope : tracking radar (3) R-scope : tracking radar range gate

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9.11 Radar Display B Type

(4) B- scope : airborne, rectangular display target amplitude commonly used air-to-air combat display. (5) B-Prime scope : az. vs closing velocity brightness of the spot.

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9.11 Azimuth vs Elevation Display

(6) C- scope : rectangular or circular display (7) D- scope : azimuth vs elevation F- scope : basically a tracking error scope

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9.11 PPI & RHI

(8) PPI : Plan Position Indicator, or P-scope (9) RHI : Range-Height Indicator

RHI(Range Height Indicator)

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9.12 Reference
[1] J.B. Tsui, Microwave Receivers with Electronic Warfare Applications, New York : Jonhn Wiley & Sons, 1986. [2] S.J.Erst, Receiving System Design, Norwood MA : Artech House, 1984
[3] J.W.Taylor Jr., Ch.3 in M.I.Skolnik, Radar Handbook, 2nd ed., New York : : McGraw-Hill, 1990. [4] S.Y.Liao,Microwave Devices and Circuits, Englewood Cliffs NJ : Prentice Hall, 1980

[5] J.W.Taylor, Jr.and J.Mattern, Ch.5 in M.I.Skolnik, Radar Handbook, 1st ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970. [6] IEEE Standard Radar Definitions, IEEE Standard 686-82, New York : The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1982.

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