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AreWeStillEvolving?
ByPeterTyson Posted12.14.09 NOVA

Theanswerdependsanddoesn'tonwhichhumansyouask.
"Therehasbeennobiologicalchangeinhumansin40,000or50,000years.Everythingwecallcultureandcivilizationwe've builtwiththesamebodyandbrain." StephenJayGould IwassurprisedwhenIreadthesewordsfromoneofthe20thcenturysleadingthinkersonevolutionarytheory.Wehominids havebeenevolvingformillionsofyears.Whywouldthathavesuddenlystopped?Isntourkind,Homosapiens,subjecttothe sameforcesofDarwiniannaturalselectionasallotherspecies? I'vegotblueeyesandlightskin,traitsthoughttohavefirstarisenmanythousandsofyearsafterwehumansleftourancestral homelandofAfricaaround50,000yearsago.Don'tsuchphysicalcharacteristicssignalthatourspecieshasbeenevolving, evenifsuchtraitsareonlyskindeep? Inshort,couldwereallybeexactlythesameaswewerewhentheancestorsofallofusfirstspreadoutfromtheAfrican continentwiththeirsimplestonetoolsandhuntergathererlifestyles?
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Simplequestion,complicatedanswer,asIfoundout.DependingonwhomIasked,theanswercamebackno,yes,yesandno, ormaybe.Paradoxically,though,Idiscoveredthatthosewhodifferostensibly,andoftenadamantly,abouthowtoreplytothis notoriouslysensitivequestionappeartomoreorlessagreeontheanswer. REIGNINGPARADIGM About40,000yearsago,asweHomosapienswerebusyreplacingNeanderthalsinEurope,thearcheologicalrecordreveals thatagreatleapforwardtookplaceinourspecies.Webeganmakingcavepaintings,jewelry,sculpture,markedlybettertools andweapons.And,accordingtoGouldandleadingthinkersacrossmanydisciplines,frombiologytoanthropology,our evolutionbecamepurelycultural.Thisparadigmheldswayfordecades."Therewasareallypervasiveideology,especiallyin socialscience,thathumansareallthesameandbiologydoesn'tcount,"saystheanthropologistHenryHarpending.

Withincreasinglyrareexceptions,survivalintheWestnolongerdependsonaperson'sgenes.

Themostobviousreasonforthinkingournaturalevolutionhasceasedisthatwe'rejustasinglespecies.Inthe200,000years sincewemodernhumansfirstappeared,wehavenotsplitintootherspecies.AnypersononEarthtodaycan,theoretically, interbreedwithanyotheroftheoppositesex.Thisistruedespiteobviousdifferencesinphysicaltraitsbetweenindividual peopleaswellasbetweendareIsayit?races.WithmyblueeyesandpaleskinI'mofnorthernEuropeandescentno onewouldconfusemewithanAustralianAborigine,aHanChinese,oraBantuAfrican,oranyofthemwithme. Racialsensitivitiescertainlyplayedapartintheparadigmholdingfastforsolong,andI'vefoundthattheymakewritingabout thissubjectdifficultevennow.Thenotionthatracescoulddifferbiologicallyinsubstantialwaysharksbacktoeugenicsand Naziatrocities.Particularlywhenitcomestowhethersomeethnicgroupsorracesmaybe"smarter"thanothers,theunspoken agreementamongresearchershastraditionallybeen,andperhapssensiblyso,"don'tgothere."

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SIMPLE,YES,BUTCOMPLEX? Evenifsomeonehadwantedtogothereandsomehave,attheirsocialandprofessionalperilnoonereallycould scientifically.BeforetheHumanGenomeProjectandrelatedstudies,thetoolsanddatadidnotexisttoreliablycheckforsigns ofrecenthumanevolution.Thiswasparticularlytrueofcomplexadaptations,thosethatresultfrommorethanasinglemutation andinvolvethecoordinatedactionsofmanygenes.Whileanyonecansee,forexample,thatobviousphysicaldifferencesexist betweenraces,evenmoresobetweenindividualpeople,asthebiologistErnstMayrwrotein1997,"whenitcomestothe psychologicalcharacteristicsthatreallycount,theroleofgenesislargelyundetermined"[myitalics]. Evolutionarypsychologists,whoattempttoexplainpsychologicaltraitssuchaslanguageormemoryastheproductsofnatural orartificialselection,concur.Andtheyagreewiththenotionthatthatgreatleapforward40,000yearsagolargelyfreedus fromthepressuresofnaturalselection.Wemadeclothesratherthangrewmorehairwecraftedbetterweaponsratherthan becamestrongerwehandeddownlearnedbehaviorsthroughlanguageratherthandiscoveredthemanew.Genetically,they held,ourevolutionhadallbutstopped. "It'sasimplifyingassumptionbasedonsheernumbers,thattheamountoftimewehavespentinamodernenvironmentisa fractionoftheamountoftimewespentevolving,"saysHarvardevolutionarypsychologistStevenPinker.Simpletraitssuchas blueeyes,whicharisefromasinglemutationinasinglegene,continuedtobeselectedfor.Butcomplextraits,suchasanew emotionorcognitiveability,simplycouldnothavebeeninstalledinsuchabriefperiodoftime,Pinkerbelieves.
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"GENUINELYOVER" Evensomegeneticistscontendwe'vestoppedevolving.StevenJonesofUniversityCollegeLondonisone.WhileJones acknowledgesthatnaturalselectionstilloperatesinpartsofthedevelopingworld,particularlyAfrica,whereselective pressuresfavormutationsthatbenefitpeopleintheirconstantstrugglewithlethaldiseases,inthedevelopedworldhuman evolutionis,hemaintains,"genuinelyover." Foronething,Jonessays,withincreasinglyrareexceptions,survivalintheWestnolongerdependsonaperson'sgenes. Advancesinmedicineandtechnologyenable98percentormoreofallbabiesbornintheUnitedStates,Europe,orJapan,for example,tosurvivelongenoughtoreproduceandpassontheirDNA.Inthepast,naturalselectionwouldhaveweededout thelessreproductivelyfit,butnolonger.Furthermore,Jonessays,beneficialmutationsdispersedthroughrandomgeneticdrift muchmorerapidlyinthepastwhenwelivedinsmall,isolatedgroupsthantheydotodayinourhuge,increasinglyintermixed globalpopulation.

Everypopulationhasastrongselectivepressureforintelligence.
Jonesalsonotesthatthenumberofoffspringthatpeoplehaveinindustrializednationsshowslittlevariation.Inthepast,a singlepowerfulmanwhoprocreatedwithabandoncouldsignificantlyinfluencethecompositionofthehumangenepool,at leastregionally.In2003,forinstance,researchersatOxfordUniversityidentifiedtheYchromosomeofGenghisKhan,whose haremsarewelldocumented,intheDNAofmenlivingtodayfromMongoliaacrosstoCentralAsia.(TheYchromosome passesessentiallyunchangedfromfathertosonsocanbetracedthroughthegenome.)Today,Jonesargues,mostfamiliesin theWesthavenone,one,two,orseveralchildren.Thereisalsoasmallerproportionofolderfathers,whocontributemore mutationstherawmaterialfornaturalselectionthandoyoungerdads,hesays.
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SPEEDINGUP Otherexpertsbelieveourbiologicalevolutionhasnotonlyproceededbuthasspedupsincewedevelopedagricultureabout 10,000yearsago,aseachangethatledtocivilizationasweknowit.TheanthropologistHenryHarpendingandphysicist turnedevolutionarybiologistGregoryCochran,bothoftheUniversityofUtah,makethisargumentforciblyintheir2009book, The10,000YearExplosion:HowCivilizationAcceleratedHumanEvolution. Usingoneofseveraltechniquesnowavailabletosearchforsignsofrecentselectioninthehumangenome,Harpendingand Cochranandtheircolleaguesdeterminedthatfully7percentofourgenesappeartobeunderrecentevolutionarypressure. Moreover,theycontend,wehumansareevolvingawayfromeachother."Thegenesthatseemtobethenewestandevolving fastestareregional,notpanhuman,"Harpendingsays.Thatis,onlysomepeople,butnotallofus,havetraitssuchasthe uppereyelidfoldofnorthernAsiansortheverydarkskinofmostDravidiansinsouthernIndiaortheblueeyesofmany northernEuropeansalladaptationsthatpresumablyarosebecausetheyconferredsomebenefitinspecifickindsof environments. Astheirforayintotheissueofracialdifferenceshints,HarpendingandCochranaren'tshyaboutpresentingcontroversial ideas.Theyargue,forinstance,thatweacquiredbeneficialgenes,includinggenestheybelievemayhavesparkedthatgreat culturalleap,frommatingwithNeanderthals.TheyciteFOXP2,agenethathasbeenimplicatedinthedevelopmentofspeech andlanguage.AEuropeanteamreportedina2007paperinCurrentBiologythatNeanderthalssharedtheverysamemutated versionofFOXP2withus.ButweapparentlyacquiredthatsharedversionofFOXP2laterthanNeanderthalsdid,onlyabout 40,000yearsago,Harpendingsays."Idon'tknowhowelsetoexplainthatexcepttosuggestwegotitfromNeanderthals,"he toldme.

Nooneknowswhynaturalselectionhasfavoredblueeyes.

ThepairalsopositthatAshkenazi(European)Jewshaveageneticadvantageinintelligence,andthatitarosefromselection pressureforsuccessinfinancialoccupations.Theyofferstrikingfiguresforexample,Jews,whilenevermorethan3percent oftheAmericanpopulation,accountfor40percentoftheAmericanNobelPrizewinnersinscienceandeconomics.Theteam saytheAshkenazimgainedthisgeneticenhancementbecauseoftheirwayoflifeintheMiddleAges.Betweenabout800and 1600inEurope,Jewstendedtodocognitivelychallengingjobsratherthanmeniallaborandnottomarryoutsidetheir community,andmoresuccessfulJewishfamilieshadmoresurvivingchildren. Skepticspointtoalackofevidence."Itcouldbetrue,"StevePinkertoldmeoftheAshkenazimtheory,"butwedon'thavethe evidencetoknowwhetherit'strue."SarahTishkoff,ageneticistattheUniversityofPennsylvania,agrees,addingthat,afterall, everypopulationhasastrongselectivepressureforintelligence,thebettertosucceedinitsrespectiveenvironment.Asfaras consortingwithNeanderthals,Tishkoffdismissesthatnotionaspurespeculation:"Idon'tknowofanyevidenceforthat." Harpending,perhapssurprisingly,isthefirsttoagree."Anumberofpeoplehavepointedoutthatprobablyhalfofitwillturnout tobewrong,"hesaysofwhatheandCochranpresentintheirbook."Andthat'swhatwethink,too.We'rethrowingoutwhat wethinkareinterestingandplausibleideas."
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HARDEVIDENCE Speculation,howeverprovocative,onlygoessofarinscience,ofcourse.Whateveryonewants,whatthesystemdemands,is empiricalevidence.Andtherevolutioningenomicshasstartedtoprovideit,throughsuchlandmarkprojectsasthe InternationalHaplotypeMap.Themapprovidesdetaileddataongeneticdifferencesin270peopleofNigerian,Japanese,Han Chinese,andnorthernEuropeandescent.Researchersnowhavethosemissingtoolsanddata,andtheycanbeginsearching inearnestforsignsofrecentevolutioninhumans.Thisincludesferretingoutpatternsofgeneticinheritance,tyinggenesto specificdiseases,evenpinpointingthelikelygeographicoriginofcertainmutations. Threerecentstudies,forexample,haveshownthatasinglemutationintheHERC2genemayberesponsiblefortheblueeyes ofalltheestimated300millionpeoplewhohavethem.Thatmutation,theresearcherssuggest,aroseinasingleindividualwho livedneartheBlackSea6,000to10,000yearsago,anditspreadfromthere.Nooneknowswhynaturalselectionhasfavored blueeyes.Theymaybemerelyabyproductofselectionforpalerskin,whichenablesbetterabsorptionofvitaminD(essential forhealthybonesandteeth)incloudiernorthernclimatesthandarkerskindoes. Forothermutations,thereasonwhythey"swept,"orincreasedinfrequency,isclearer.Takethegenethatconferslactose tolerance.Formostofourhistory,ourabilitytodigestlactose,thechiefsugarinmilk,turnedoffafterweaningweonlydrank ourmother'smilk.Butaftercattleweredomesticated,cow'smilkbecameanutritiousadditiontothediet.Naturalselection wouldhavefavoredindividualsbornwithamutationthatkeptthesocalledlactasegeneswitchedonthroughoutlife,enabling themtodigestmilk. GeneticevidenceshowsthatsuchamutationfirstoccurredinnorthernEuropeperhaps8,000yearsago.Recently,ateamled bySarahTishkoffidentifiedthreenewmutations,eachconferringlactosetolerance,thataroseinthreedifferentpopulationsin EastAfrica.AllwereindependentofoneanotherandoftheoriginalEuropeanmutation.Natureseemsbesolvingthesame problemindifferentways.

Fewwouldsaywe'reevolvingenoughtodifferentiateintooneormorenewspeciesofhuman.
Someofthestrongestsignsofrecentselectionconcerngenesthatcorrelatewithcertaininfectiousdiseases.Asearlyasthe 1950sresearchersnotedthatthesicklecellmutationinthebetahemoglobingeneprovidedcarriersofthetraitwithprotection againstmalaria.Sincethen,scientistshaveidentifiedanumberofgeneticvariantsthatconfersomedefenseagainstother diseases,includingHIVandlassa,ahemorrhagicfeverendemictopartsofcentralandwestAfrica. Techniquestofindsuchvariantsareimprovingallthetime.PardisSabeti,anevolutionarybiologistatHarvardwholinkedtwo genestolassafever,hasrecentlydevelopedapowerfulnewtechniquewithherteam.Dubbedthe"compositeofmultiple

signals,"itintegratesdatafromthreewidelyusedtestsforselection."It'sveryexciting,becauseitmeansthatwecangetto biologicalcandidatesthatwecanreallyunderstand,asopposedtomakingstoriesfromlargeregions[ofthegenome],"Sabeti says.Thatis,researcherscanbemuchsurerwhichgenesanapparentselectionpressureisactuallyactingupon,with consequentlygreaterchanceofdeterminingthefunctionofspecifictraits. Anddeterminingfunctionisthefirststeptotranslatingfindingsintobetterwaystocombatdiseasesandintoimprovedpublic healthefforts.Onesuchselectionstudy,forexample,thatwaspublishedinNaturein2007withSabetiasleadauthor,ledto newdiagnostictestingfacilitiesforlassafeverinNigeria.

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ANEVOLVINGBRAIN? Andwhataboutthebrain?Anysignsofrecentselectionthere?Apparentlyso.In2005,forinstance,BruceLahn,an evolutionarygeneticistattheUniversityofChicago,reportedinSciencethatvariantsoftwogenesknowntoplayaroleinbrain developmentmicrocephalinandASPMappeartohaveundergonestrongrecentnaturalselection.Lahninadvertentlygot himselfintohotwaterbynotingthatthesepresumablybeneficialmutationsarecommoninEurasianpopulationsbutrarein African.Thiseventhoughheemphasizedthatneitherhenoranyoneelsehasanyideawhetherthesegenesorthisrecent selectionpressurehasanythingtodowithintelligenceperse. Thetruthisthat,withstudiessuchasSabeti'sandLahn'sincreasinginfrequency,"don'tgothere"maynolongerbe sustainable.AsPinkerwroteinaNewRepublicarticleontheAshkenazimtheory,"Realityiswhatrefusestogoawaywhenyou donotbelieveinit,andprogressinneuroscienceandgenomicshasmadethesepoliticallycomfortingshibboleths(suchasthe nonexistenceofintelligenceandthenonexistenceofrace)untenable." AGENERALCONSENSUS Intheend,theanswertothequestionofwhetherwe'restillevolvingseemstocomedowntoamatterofdegree.Andwhen youlookatitthatway,mostscientistsseemtobeinbasicagreement.Thatis,fewwouldclaimwe'renotevolvingatall.The geneticevidencefornaturalselectionatleastformutationsofsingleoratmostafewgenesthatconfersomebenefitand therebyspreadthroughapopulationovertimeisjusttoostrong,andit'sgettingstrongerallthetime. Bythesametoken,fewwouldsaywe'reevolvingenoughtobecome,say,thebulbousheadedsuperhumansofscifianytime soon.Or,forthatmatter,enoughtodifferentiateintooneormorenewspeciesofhuman.Evensayingunequivocallywhether anyorallofusaregettingsmarterisimpossibletosay.AsPinkerputittome,"We'relookingatasnapshotofourselves,and we'dreallyhavetorunthemovieforanotherfewthousandyears." Few,itseemstome,couldarguewiththat.
PeterTysoniseditorinchiefofNOVAOnline.

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