I

English for Academic Purposes Course Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? You should start by defining and describing learning autonomy, and giving some general historical background to the developing of the concept of learner autonomy, before evaluating its use in the EAP context.

Jennifer E. Taylorson University of St. Andrews Student number: 110017069 Word Count: 3000

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? Table of Contents

II

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 Autonomy: Determining Influences .......................................................................................... 1 Autonomy: A Definition ............................................................................................................ 2 The Important of Autonomy in EAP Contexts .......................................................................... 3 Supporting the Development of Autonomy in EAP Contexts ................................................... 4 The Role of Teacher and Learner ........................................................................................... 4 The Learner and the Syllabus ................................................................................................ 5 Assessment and Evaluation.................................................................................................... 5 Strategy Training ................................................................................................................... 6 Peer Collaboration ................................................................................................................. 7 Self-Access ............................................................................................................................ 8 Evaluation .................................................................................................................................. 8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 10 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 11

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? Introduction

As Gremmo and Riley (1995) state, over the last seventy years the ideas of autonomy and self-direction, although hotly debated, have gradually come to be accepted and indeed significant concepts within both educational research and the practice of teaching and learning. Within the context of English for Academic Purposes (EAP), these concepts have been become fundamental aspects of the teaching and learning process due to the learners pressing need to become self-sufficient, confident users of the target language as they move into their specialist areas of study. In order to place the practice of autonomy within EAP into a larger context, this paper will first seek to briefly describe some of the influences that have brought about its incorporation into our practice and define, exactly, what is meant by the term. Subsequently, the paper will consider in more depth the arguments put forward for supporting the development of learner autonomy generally, and discuss and evaluate its practice within in-situ, inner-circle country (Kachru, 1985) EAP course contexts. Autonomy: Determining Influences As briefly mentioned above, the concept of autonomy has become a central element of contemporary English language teaching and the notion that an independent learner is a successful learner (Rubin, 1975), although much discussed, is now fairly well established (Little, 1995). Whilst this may currently be the case, the journey to the present day, dating back to shortly after the Second World War, has not been straight forward and has been influenced by a complex combination of developments within the fields of philosophy, political science, psychology, and sociology (Gremmo and Riley, 1995). In its early days, when learning was considered a process by which knowledge was transmitted from the teacher, or expert knower, to the student (considered a passive vessel), the concept of autonomy was considered a cranky affront to educational common sense (Gremmo & Riley, 1995: 152). However, with the advent of various minority rights

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? movements (for example, the Womens Liberation Movement, and the Gay Rights Movement) which saw autonomy as a political right; the backlash against mechanistic Behaviorist psychology and the resulting advent of Cognitivist and Humanist psychology which emphasised the important role of the learner within the learning process; and the rise of Communicative Language Teaching with its emphasis on communicative functions, individual needs, social normsand "autonomy" (Gremmo & Riley, 1995: 153), gradually, over the years autonomy as a practice within education has found justification from ideological, psychological, and economic grounds (Crabbe, 1993). Autonomy: A definition Perhaps, in part, due to the complex web of influences outlined above, autonomy has become a slippery concept; one which is particularly difficult to define (Little, n.d.a). Indeed, over the years autonomy has been considered a cognitive, metacognitive, affective and social issue and there has been much discussion regarding whether it should be considered in terms of responsibility or control, ability or behaviour, a psychological state or

a political right, and whether learner autonomy depends on complementary teacher autonomy (Little, n.d.a). Due to the above, there is no one universally accepted definition of autonomy; rather, the term can be characterised in a number of different ways. For example, Dickinson (1995: 166), perceiving autonomy to be a capacity and forging a clear link between autonomy and motivation defines it as both an attitude towards learning and a capacity for independent study. Cotterall (1996:195) on the other hand, seeing autonomy as both a cognitive and metacognitive issue, states that it is the extent to which learners demonstrate the ability to use a set of tactics for taking control of their learning whereas Boud (1988: 23, as cited in Cotterall 1995: 195), characterising the concept in terms of learner responsibility, believes that autonomys main characteristic is that students take responsibility for their own learning.

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? Finally, Holec (1981: 3, as cited in Cotterall, 2000: 109), like Dickinson, determines autonomy to be a matter of control and ability, stating that autonomy is the ability to manage one's own learning independently. Despite the lack of clarity these definitions infer, for this purpose of this paper, we will take an holistic approach and consider autonomy to mean the gradual movement of learners towards self-reliance (Boud, 1988: 22, as cited in ODoherty, 2006) through the acceptance of responsibility for their own learning processes (Little, 1995). The Importance of Autonomy in EAP Contexts As Little (n.d.a) states, there are two are two general arguments in favour of building learners capacity for autonomy. The first is that learning is likely to be more efficient and effective if learners are reflectively engaged in their own learning process. Indeed, learners who can develop self-reflective skills will be more able to use their learning to serve their

wider agendas (Little, n.d.a) and will be more able to use their learning independently of their teachers (Cotterall, 2000). Since it is obvious that no students, anywhere, will have their teachers to accompany them throughout life, logically autonomy would appear to be an incontrovertible goal for learners everywhere (Cotterall, 2000). In EAP contexts, however, this is of particularly importance as autonomy is expected and indeed required from student members of the academic community (Lynch, 2001), especially postgraduate researchers, in a way that would not be demanded from them in other walks of life. The second of the above mentioned arguments is that through developing autonomy, motivation can also be increased. Indeed, as Little (n.d.b) states, According to a large body of empirical research in social psychology, autonomy feeling free and volitional in ones actions (Deci 1995:2, as cited in Little, n.d.b) is a basic human need. It is nourished by, and in turn nourishes, our intrinsic motivation, our proactive interest in the world around us.

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? As in EAP contexts tasks can often be very challenging and the subject matter very serious, sustaining student interest and motivation, especially on long, full-time courses, can be problematic (Jordan, 1997). The assertion that motivation can be raised through developing autonomy therefore has particular relevance to the field of EAP as it not only teaches learners the skills they will need for future study within academic departments, but also supports them to stay engaged in their studies. Supporting the Development of Autonomy in EAP Contexts To prepare EAP learners for the academic community, where independence and selfsufficiency is mandatory, EAP teachers must clearly support their students in a gradual

transitioning from teacher dependence to independence (Kennedy and Bolitho, 1984, cited in Jordan, 1997: 116). As Littlewood (1996: 432) suggests, this can be achieved through developing our students autonomy as learners, as people, and as communicators, which in practical terms means supporting learners to develop communication and learning strategies, capacity for independent study, ability to create personal learning contexts and to creatively express personal meanings. In EAP contexts this is achieved in a number of ways which will be described in the following paragraphs. The Role of Teacher and Learner As the goal of autonomous learning is the negation of the teaching-learning distinction (Benson, 1996: 33, as cited in Lynch, 2001: 394), within contemporary EAP teaching contexts, where learning is considered to be a social and inter-dependent (Lantolf, 2007) process, through which more knowledgeable members of a community scaffold novice participants in developing higher levels of competence (Donato, 1994 as cited in Mattos 2000) teachers support the development of learner autonomy through taking on the role of a facilitator, resource, or counsellor (Voller, 1997, as cited in Lynch, 2001: 394).

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? Such roles, in contrast to more teacher-centred, traditional transmission styles of teaching by necessity encourage learners to become more active participants in the learning process and to take more responsibility for the direction of their own learning. The Learner and the Syllabus EAP, as a branch of ESP, stresses the individual needs and interests of learners, aims to design courses that are entirely pertinent to these individual needs and interests (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987), and through needs analysis procedures such as Hutchinson and Waters (1987), seek not only to analyse the target language use situation and the learners linguistic lacks, but also the learners own perceptions of their problems. Taking the students own assessment of their learning into consideration whilst designing a syllabus develops students autonomy as people1 and learners2 (Littlewood, 1996) as through the

blurring of traditional boundaries between the roles of teacher and learner, students are given more control over the content and delivery of the course and are presented with opportunities to create their own learning contexts (Littlewood, 1996). Assessment and Evaluation In EAP contexts, students can develop autonomy as learners (Littlewood, 1996) through becoming involved in the assessment process (Lynch, 2001). For example, a teacher might begin by explicitly sharing the goals of the course or learning objectives and success criteria so as to implicitly develop the students ability to think of their learning in terms of goals and objectives. Further to this, they may provide a framework (e.g. SMART targets) which can support learners to set realistic and manageable goals and objectives, encourage
1

Defined by Littlewood (1996: 431) as developing the ability to express personal meanings and the ability to create personal learning contexts (e.g. through interacting outside the classroom) see page 4 for original reference.
2

Defined by Littlewood (1996: 431) as developing the ability to engage in independent work (e.g. self-directed learning); and the ability to use appropriate learning strategies both inside and outside the classroom see page 4 for original reference.

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? learners to assess their own work through the utilisation of checklists, suggest that students

keep reflective diaries about their learning, or encourage learners to grade their own work and compare their grade with that of the teachers. As well as developing autonomy, such practices also build confidence, provide a personalised purpose for study, and give students control over their own learning, all of which, according to Attribution Theory and SelfDetermination Theory, increase motivation (Dickinson, 1995). In terms of course evaluation, learners can develop autonomy as people (Littlewood, 1996) by being afforded the opportunity to provide input that can shape the direction of the course. In practical terms learners can be asked to take part in regular interviews in order that they can express their opinions about the direction and usefulness of the course (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987), and can be asked to complete evaluative questionnaires about the course content and delivery. Strategy Training Learning strategies are procedures that facilitate a learning task and are often conscious and goal-driven, especially in the beginning stages of tackling an unfamiliar language task (Chamot, 2005). Further to this, strategies, according to Oxford (1985, cited in Erhman & Oxford, 1990), can be broken down into direct strategies, the teaching of which can increase student autonomy as communicators3 (Littlewood, 1996) as these are behaviours involving the direct use of the target language, and indirect strategies, the teaching of which can increase student autonomy as learners (Littlewood, 1996) as these strategies support language learning although do not directly involve using the target language.

Defined by Littlewood (1996: 431) as developing the ability to use the language creatively and the ability to use appropriate strategies for communicating meanings in specific situations see page 4 for original reference.

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? Within EAP contexts, strategy training usually centres around enabling learners to

develop certain study skills directly related to their target language use situations (for a list of such skills, see Jordan, 1997: 7) as the acquisition of such skills will allow learners to work successfully and autonomously as members of the academic community. In practical terms strategy training can be approached from a number of different angles depending upon the strategy a teacher is seeking to raise awareness of, the nature of the learners, and the objectives of the course. For example, some EAP courses, like the one outlined by Lynch (2001) separate learning strategies out and approach them in separate dedicated courses, whilst others integrate the teaching of strategies into the curriculum. One way or another, however, in EAP contexts, there is a focus on raising strategy awareness and relating these strategies to learners target language use situations. Peer Collaboration In relation to helping learners develop autonomy as communicators, the setting of tasks which require learners to work collaboratively supports the development of indirect social and cooperative strategies (Oxfords Strategy Taxonomy, 1985, cited in Erhman & Oxford, 1990) as such activities force learners to pool their linguistic resources in order to jointly manage components of the discourse so that the best communicative outcome can be achieved (Donato, 1994; Kowal and Swain, 1997, cited in Ellis, 2008: 236/237). Through this process learners scaffold one anothers cognitive and linguistic development and in doing so, become less teacher dependent. In EAP contexts, where students may be going into subject areas that require them, for example, to work collobatively on laboratory projects or more generally on tutorial tasks, collaboration not only helps develop communication skills generally, but can also, if done well, prepare them for their target language use situations.

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? Self-Access

Finally, as Jordan (1997) states, EAP teachers can support learners to develop degrees of autonomy include self-access centres, materials, and individual projects. In terms of self-assess centres and materials, teachers can create small libraries of resources which may include audio recordings of lectures, videos, or articles pertinant to the interests and needs of their learners. Such centres/resources provide learners with the opportunity to pursue their own personal interests, which increases motivation for study, and also teaches them skills contected to carrying out independent study and research. In terms of project work, in EAP contexts, and especially for postgraduate Masters and Doctoral students who will be required to carry out research (essentially a large-scale project in which students must set their own goals and objects, identify their own questions, methods, and procedures), the setting of individual or collaborative project work, the topci/direction of which can be partially or fully detemined by the learners, can support the creation of personal learning contexts (Littlewood, 1996) and also develop a readiness for working autonomously in the target langauge use situation. Evaluation Whilst there are well establish arguments (outlined above) that justify the central place that autonomy currently enjoys in the EAP context described, there are also challenging issues that make the practice of autonomy within EAP at best logistically difficult and at worst, conceptually questionable. To give an example of one of the logistical considerations, as mentioned above, one way in which autonomy is practiced in EAP contexts is through the creation of negotiated syllabi, which Pugsley (1988, as cited in Lynch, 2001: 394) believes is an especially apt practice as EAP learners, often particularly able to precisely articulate their opinions about

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? the direction they believe their learning should take, can frequently make very positive and apposite suggestions about the content, methodology and resources to be included/utilised in a course. However, whilst basing the syllabus on the learners own perceived needs can be a particularly apt practice as it can provide students with greater control over the teaching and learning process, in practical terms it can be difficult to convert such analysis directly into a negotiated syllabus as there may be a number of constraints that prevent the incorporation of such learner oriented assessments (Lynch, 2001). For example, learners may have varied

perceived needs or learning preferences which cannot all be accommodated due to constraints on class composition, access to resources, or institutional practices. In terms of conceptual questionability, whilst studying successfully at university level within inner circle countries requires the ability to work autonomously, many EAP learners come from countries where the concepts of autonomy, individual responsibility, and freedom as they figure in social and educational contexts in the West do not exist (Jones, 1995). Indeed, one might argue that such concepts are heavily laden with Western values and therefore the practice of making the development of learner autonomy a central goal of EAP instruction is culturally insensitive (Jones, 1995) at best and culturally imperialistic at worst (see Holliday, 1994, for further discussion). To take this line of thought in a slightly different direction, even if one considers the development of learner autonomy to be in the students interests and therefore justified, students prior learning experiences will necessarily affect their beliefs about the teaching and learning process (Cotterall, 1995). Indeed, those students who have come from traditional and authoritative learning environments will perhaps not be as ready to accept the responsibility that, for example, assessing and evaluation their own work would present (Cotterall, 1995). In order to accommodate such students, it is important that teachers

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? consider the level of autonomy they expect from their learners during any given task

10

(Littlewood, 1996) and scaffold their learners development strategically and incrementally. Perhaps a final consideration for EAP teachers and course designers is the question of the degree of autonomy they expect of learners. As Knight, (1996, cited in McDermot, 2006: 1) points out, autonomy, or independent learning can imply that students must go it alone, unaided. However, as briefly discussed above, current thinking considers learning, by its nature, to be interdependent (Biggs, 2003 cited in McDermot, 2006). With this in mind, it is important that teachers and course designers not underestimate the value of teacher input, modelling, and guidance, keep a sense of perspective, and expect from their learners only what is reasonable. Conclusion In conclusion, in terms of the critical line of argument outlined above that challenges the integrity of developing learner autonomy in students from countries that do not share such values, pragmatically, in order to succeed as part of academic communities in inner circle countries, learners need a high degree of independence. Indeed, as outlined in this assignment EAP students must develop autonomy as communicators in order to express themselves effectively in the target language situation, as learners in order to cope with the university learning environments they will be functioning within, and as people in order to become original and successful researchers and academics. Without such autonomy learners will likely fail. Developing learner autonomy through supportive and strategic means, therefore, must be a central and indeed explicitly stated goal of EAP tuition regardless of such arguments.

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? Bibliography Chamot, A. (2005). Language Learning Strategy Instruction: Current Issues and Rearch. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 112130. Cotterall, S. (2000). Promoting learner autonomy through the curriculum: Principles for designing language courses. ELT Journal, 54(2), 109-117. Cotterall, S. (1995). Readiness for Autonomy: Investigating Learner Beliefs. System, 23(2), 195-205. Crabbe, D. A. (1993) Fostering autonomy from within the classroom: the teacher's responsibility. System 21(4), 443-452. Dickinson, L. (1995). Autonomy and Motivation: A Literature Review. System, 23(2), 165174. Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford. OUP. Ehrman, M., & Oxford, R. (1990). Adult Language Learning Styles and Strategies in an Intensive Training Setting. The Modern Language Journal, 74 (3), 311-327.

11

Gremmo, M., J. & Riley, P. (1995). Autonomy, Self-Direction and Self-Access in Language Teaching and Learning: The History of an Idea. System, 23(2), 151-164. Holliday, A. (1994). Appropriate Methodology and Social Context. Cambridge. CUP. Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes. Cambridge. CUP. Jones, J, F. (1995). Self-Access and Culture: Retreating from Autonomy. ELT Journal Volume 49(3), 228-234. Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge Univeristy Press.

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes?

12

Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: the English language in the outer circle. In Quirk, R., and Widdowson, H., G. (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (11-30).Cambridge. CUP. Lantolf, J. P. (2007). Sociocultural Theory: A Unified Approach to L2 Learning and Teaching. In Cummins, J., Davison, C (Eds.), International handbook of English language teaching, Volume 1 (693 701). New York: Springer Science + Business Media LLC. Little, D. (1995). Learning as Dialogue: The Dependence of Learner Autonomy on Teacher Autonomy. System, 23(2), 175-181. Little, D. (n.d.a). Learners Autonomy and Second/Foreign Language Learning. Retrieved from http://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/1409 Little, D. (n.d.b). Learner autonomy: Drawing together the threads of self-assessment, goalsetting and reflection. Retrieved from http://www.archive.ecml.at/mtp2/Elp_tt/ Results/DM_layout/00_10/06/06%20Supplementary%20text.pbf Littlewood, W. (1996). Autonomy: An Autonomy and a Framework. System, 24(4), No. 4, 427-435. Lynch, Tony (2001) Promoting EAP Learner Autonomy in a Second Language University Context. Eds. John Flowerdew and Mathew Peacock. Research Perspectives on English for Academic Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 390-403. Mattos, A. M. (2000). A Vygotskian Approach to Evaluation in Foreign Language Learning Contexts. ELT Journal, 54(4), 335-345.

Why is it important to develop learner autonomy on a course of English for Academic Purposes? ODoherty, M. (2006). Definition of Independent Learning Initial Overview. Retrieved

13

from http://www.learnhigher.ac.uk/resources/files/Indepentant%20Learning/Indepenent _Learning[1].pdf Rubin, J. (1975). What the "Good Language Learner" can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 4151.