COMPUTATIONAL MECHANICS New Trends and Applications S. Idelsohn, E. Oate and E. Dvorkin (Eds.

) CIMNE, Barcelona, Spain 1998

ANALYSIS OF DUCTILE DAMAGE COUPLED WITH THERMOPLASTICITY BY THE FEM

Luiz A. B. da Cunda*, Eduardo Bittencourt, and Guillermo J. Creus
Departamento de Materiais e Construo (DMC) Fundao Universidade do Rio Grande Av. Itlia, s/n, 96201-900 - Rio Grande, RS, Brazil e-mail: lubrac@darwin.cesup.ufrgs.br, web page: http://www.furg.br Centro de Mecnica Aplicada e Computacional (CEMACOM) Curso de Ps-Graduao em Engenharia Civil (CPGEC) Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Av. Oswaldo Aranha, 99, 3o Andar - 90035-190 - Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil e-mail: bittenco@cesup.ufrgs.br, web page: http://www.ufrgs.br/cemacom
*

Key words: Gurson Model, Ductile Damage, Thermoplasticity, Porous Materials. Abstract. Large plastic deformations are usually associated with heating (due to the dissipation of mechanical work) and ductile damage. Heating alters the mechanical properties of the material and the development of damage. Conversely, damage alters the stress strain relation and the work dissipated into heat. Elastoplastic analysis uses an hypoelastic formulation based in multiplicative elasto-plastic decomposition. Continuum damage is modeled with the Gurson-Tvergaard formulation. Several examples are presented to test influences of the integration process, the geometry and the temperature. Special attention is dedicated to a problem of the necking in a bar under simple tension, which is a usual benchmark. We show that the notch usually used to initiate necking may affect the results. If thermomechanical analysis with convection is employed, necking is formed in a natural way, without need of an additional perturbation.

Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

INTRODUCTION

Continuum damage theory allows the modeling of material degradation and rupture. In metal forming problems, the material is submitted to large plastic deformations that can produce severe ductile damage. Another phenomenon present in metal forming is the transformation of mechanical plastic work into heat, that increases the temperature in the body. Heating alters the mechanical properties of the material and the development of damage. The code METAFOR1,2 is used as basis for the development in this work. In this code, the model of Gurson-Tvergaard3,4 is used as the constitutive relation for damage. A return mapping method is used to integrate Cauchy stresses, following an approach developed by Stainier5. This is a critical step of the algorithm, for which different methods have been proposed in the literature, due to the high non-linearity involved. In general, these nonlinearities lead to a dependence of the solution on the time-step size. In this work another algorithm to integrate stresses, proposed by Zhang and Niemi6 is tested. The thermomechanical coupling is applied using the approach developed by Rozenwald7. A short abstract of the formulation is given in section 2. One of the classical benchmarks for plasticity and damage is the tension test of a cylindrical bar. To initiate necking it is usually necessary to introduce an arbitrary perturbation, normally in the form of a notch. However, the size of the perturbation may affect the final results. Garcia Garino et al.8 have studied the effect of size notch in some detail. Even when notch is used, for a large time-step size, necking can be formed at the top of the bar as indicated by Aravas9. A more natural way to induce the necking seems to be the use of a coupled thermomechanical analysis. Due to the effect of plastic deformation and convection, a temperature gradient is formed, that induces the necking to appear naturally at the center of the bar. The coupling is due to the variation in mechanical properties (Young modulus, Poison modulus, yield stress and hardening modulus) with temperature, and also due to the consideration of thermal strains and stresses. The change of thermal properties with damage10 is not considered in the examples given. 2 BASIC EQUATIONS

2.1 Constitutive equations for damage For the modeling of the ductile rupture of metals, three steps are considered: nucleation, growth and coalescence of voids. A variable void volume fraction d is defined as a measure of the damage. Then, damage is controlled by plastic flow around the voids. The well-known Gurson3 formulation proposes a body with spherical voids and the yield surface: 1 f = s s w ( p, y , d ) y = 0 2 ij ij (1)

where p and sij are the hydrostatic and deviatoric parts of the Cauchy stress ij , y is the

Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

yield stress, function of the temperature T and the equivalent plastic deformation P : y = h1 ( P , T ) (2)

with parameters that depend on the material used. w ( p, y , d ) is the function introduced by Gurson3 and modified by Tvergaard4 to take into account the spherical voids. The plastic P strain rate Dij is given by the normality rule,
P & f Dij = ij

(3)

& where is a scalar to be determined. The evolution function for d depends on the level of the damage and generically can be written as5: & & d = h2 ( p, y , d ) Finally, using the hypotheses of balance of plastic dissipation,
P & (1 d ) y P = ij Dij

(4)

we arrive to & & P = h3 ( p, y , d ) (5)

where h3 depends on the level of damage5. The set of equations (1) to (5) is highly non-linear and its solution is a delicate task, for which different procedures have been proposed. The approach proposed by Zhang and Niemi6 was implemented for this work. They propose a mid-point generalized algorithm, defined by a parameter: if = 1, we have a fully implicit schema and for = 0 we have a fully explicit schema. In this work, to enhance the algorithm, a subincremental solution11 was implemented. 2.2 Discretized equilibrium equations Considering a continuum discretized in finite element the set of equations that govern the mechanical and thermal problem can be written, respectively, as:
mec && M ijU j + Fi ,int = Fi ,mec ext

(6) (7)

& Cij T j + Fi term = Fi term ,int ,ext

&& where, in the first equation, Mij is the mass matrix, U j is the nodal acceleration vector, Fi mec ,int and Fi mec are the vectors that contain internal and external mechanical forces, respectively. In ,ext & the second equation, Cij is the thermal capacity, T is the nodal temperature rate, F term and
j i ,int

term i ,ext

are the vectors that contain the internal and external thermal forces, respectively. The

Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

two set of equation above are linked by the heat produced by mechanical work and by the dependence of mechanical properties on the temperature (see equation (2)). Therefore, a coupled solution of these equation must be provided (see Rozenwald7 for details). 3 APPLICATIONS

3.1 Example 1 As first application we study a plane strain tension problem, presented by Zhang and Niemi6. The element used is a four-node isoparametric, with equal length sides. The boundary conditions are depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Scheme of element

The initial void volume fraction is zero. An implicit integration scheme with =1 was used. The material parameters are: Young Modulus E = 75 GPa, Poison Modulus = 0,3 and 0 yield stress y = y (1 + k P ) n with y0 = 250 MPa , k = 345 e n = 01 . The damage , parameters used are dn = 0,04, n = 0,3, sn = 0,1, dc = 0,55 and du = 0,6667. We present in Figure 2 the void volume fraction formed using the algorithm implemented; in figure 3 we present the results obtained with ABAQUS12. The logarithmic strain is given by y=ln(1+u/a), where u is the prescribed displacement and a the initial side length of element. We see that the algorithm implemented is almost insensible to the size of increment. The solution is indistinguishable, in the figure scale, from the solution considered as exact, obtained from a set of non-linear equations solved with 200000 steps6 and shows that the integration scheme is reliable.

Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

Figure 2: Void volume fraction versus logarithmic strain using implemented algorithm

Figure 3: Void volume fraction versus logarithmic strain using ABAQUS

Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

3.2 Example 2 In this example we study the influence of notch geometry on the critical load of cylindrical bars submitted to tension. In this example an isothermal analysis is done. A quarter of the bar is analyzed as shown in Figure 4; we employ meshes of isoparametric elements (4-node) with reduced integration on the volumetric component. Three specimens with different notch sizes are used in the computations. The dimensions of the specimens are: a = 2 mm, b = 3 mm and d = 21 mm. The last dimension assumes the values c = 0,5 mm, c = 1,5 mm and c = 9 mm that corresponds to notches 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The loads are applied by a displacement of the nodes at the top.

Figure 4: Dimensions and boundary conditions

The mechanical properties are: Young Modulus E = 75 GPa, Poison Modulus = 0,3. The 0 0 yield stress is y = y (1 + 345 P ) 0,1 , with y = 250 MPa . The damage parameters used are dn= 0,04, n = 0,3, sn = 0,1, dc = 0,55 and du = 0,6667. The relation load versus displacement can be seen in Figure 5. We can see that the higher maximum load (or critical load) is associated with the shortest notch. The result is confirmed by experimental analysis and explained by the severe hydrostatic stress state that develops when the notch length decreases. In Figure 6 plastic strain, hydrostatic stress and damage isolines for notch 1 are shown. In Figures 7 and 8 we see the plastic strain, hydrostatic stress and damage isolines for notches 2 and 3.

Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

Figure 5: Load-displacement relation for the three specimens

Figure 6: Plastic strain, hydrostatic stress and void volume fraction for notch 1 specimen

Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

Figure 7: Plastic strain, hydrostatic stress and void volume fraction for notch 2 specimen

Figure 8: Plastic strain, hydrostatic stress and void volume fraction for notch 3 specimen

Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

3.3 Example 3 Now we study the axial traction of an axysimmetrical bar. We will analyze the problem in four situations: elastoplasticity, elastoplasticity with damage, thermoplasticity and thermoplasticity with damage. The height of the bar is h = 53,334 mm and the radius R0 = 6,413 mm. We employ a mesh of isoparametric elements (4-node) with reduced integration on the volumetric component. The loading is applied by a displacement of the nodes at the top with velocity of 1 mm/s. We studied three geometries: two meshes with geometric imperfection (a notch) to initiate the necking and a third mesh without imperfection. The imperfection is at mid height of the bar, on the external surface. The radius at the middle of the bar is reduced to 0,995R0. In Figure 9 we can see a scheme of the geometry employed and in Figure 10 we see one of the meshes employed, with boundary conditions. The dimensions of the notch 1 are: a = 0,032 mm and b= 0,82 mm. The dimensions for the notch 2 are: a = 0,032 mm and b = 8,62 mm. The relation b/h is 3,07% for the notch 1 and 32,3% for the notch 2.

Figure 9: Illustration of dimensions of the notches

We assume that 90% of plastic work is transformed to heat and that the body changes heat with the neighborhood (convection). The mechanical properties, that in this example do not change with temperature, are: Young Modulus E = 206,9 GPa, Poison Modulus = 0,3 and a density = 7800 kg/m3. The initial temperature is Tref = 293 K and the linear thermal expansion coefficient is = 10 x 10-6 K-1. The specific heat is c = 460 Jkg-1K-1 and the thermal conductibility is k = 45 Wm-1K-1. The yield stress y is given by
0 0 y (T ) = y (T ) + ( y (T ) y (T ))[1 exp( P )] 0 y (T ) = y0 (Tref )[1 0,002(T Tref )]

Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

y (T ) = y (Tref )[1 0,002(T Tref )]

0 y (Tref ) = 450 MPa

y (Tref ) = 715 MPa

= 16,93

Tref = 293K

The hardening dependence on temperature is given by h(T ) = h(Tref )[1 0,002(T Tref )] The convection parameter is hc = 17,8 W/m2 K. The damage parameters are dn = 0,04 n = 0,3 sn = 0,1 dc = 0,55 du = 0,6667

Figure 10: Mesh with notch 2 and boundary conditions

The relation load versus displacement for several combinations of type of analysis and geometry is shown in Figure 11. We can see that the bars with notches have different behavior in comparison with the more realistic simulation (thermoplasticity with convection and without notch). The presence of such notches alters not only the post-critical behavior of the traction test, but also the critical load. The same phenomenon remarked in the example 3.2, where the sharped notch presents higher critical load, is here also observed. We can arrive to the same conclusions if we consider the results for the analyses with damage, presented in Figure 12. In these cases the displacement at rupture is also affected by the notches. So, the simulation of the necking phenomenon, with the boundary condition imposed in this example, can be performed in a natural manner when thermomechanical coupled problem is taken into account. In Figure 13 are presented isolines of plastic strain, hydrostatic stress, void volume fraction and temperature.

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Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

80000

60000

Load (N)

40000

plasticity with notch 1 plasticity with notch 2

20000

thermoplasticity without notch thermoplasticity with notch 1 thermoplasticity with notch 2

0 0 2 4 6 8

Top Displacement (mm)

Figure 11: Load-displacement relation for plastic and thermoplastic analyses

80000

60000

Load (N)

40000

plasticity with notch 1

20000

plasticity with damage and notch 1 plasticity with damage and notch 2 thermoplasticity with damage and without notch thermoplasticity with damage and with notch 1 thermoplasticity with damage and with notch 2

0 0 2 4 6 8

Top Displacement (mm)

Figure 12: Load-displacement relation for plastic and thermoplastic analyses including damage

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Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

Figure 13: Isolines for thermoplastic analysis including damage and without notch (a) plastic strain (b) pressure (c) void volume fraction (d) temperature

CONCLUSIONS

1) The algorithm implemented has a good precision, even with large increment size. 2) The shape of the notches alters in significant manner the force-displacement relations. The result obtained is in accordance with experimental observation. 3) The use of a thermomechanical analysis with convection leads to a neck formed in a natural way, without need of an initial geometrical perturbation that, as we showed, may affect the solution of the problem. REFERENCES [1] J. P. Ponthot, Mcanique des milieux continus solides en grandes transformations et traitement unifi par la mthode des elments finis, Ph.D. Tesis, Universit de Lige, (1995). [2] J. P. Ponthot and M. Hogge, The use of eulerian-lagrangian finite element method in metal forming including contact and adaptive mesh, Proc. ASME Winter Annual Meeting, Atlanta 1-6 Dec., 1-16, (1991). [3] A. L.Gurson, Continuum Theory of Ductile Rupture by Void Nucleation and Growth - I. Yield Criteria and Flow Rules for Porous Ductile Media, Journal of Engineering and Materials Technology, 99, 2-15 (1977). [4] V. Tvergaard, Material Failure by Void Coalescence in Localized Shear Bands, Int. Journal of Solids and Structures, 18, 8, 659-672 (1982). [5] L. Stainier, Modlisation numrique du comportement irrversible des mtaux ductiles soumis grandes dformations avec endommagement, Ph. D. Tesis, Universit de Lige, (1996).

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Luiz A. B. da Cunda, Eduardo Bittencourt and Guillermo J. Creus.

[6] Z. L. Zhang and E. Niemi, A class of generalized mid-point algorithms for the GursonTvergaard material model, Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng, 38, 2033-2053 (1995). [7] D. Rozenwald, Modelisation thermomecanique des grandes dformations. Application aux problemes de mise a forme des mtaux, des elastomeres et des structures mixtes metal-elastomere, Ph.D. Tesis, Universit de Lige, (1996). [8] C. G. Garcia Garino, A. Mirasso, S. R. Raichman and J. M. Goicolea, Imperfection sensitivity analysis of necking instability in circular bars, in Computational plasticity fundamentals and applications, edited by D.R.J. Owen, E. Oate and E. Hinton, 759-764, CIMNE, Barcelona (1997). [9] N. Aravas, On the numerical integration of a class of pressure-dependent plasticity models, Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng, 24, 1395-1416 (1987). [10] A. Zavaliangos and A. L. Anand, Thermal aspects of shear localization in microporous viscoplastic solids, Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng, 33, 595-634 (1992). [11] M. J. Worswick and R. J. Pick, Void growth and coalescence during high velocity impact, Mechanics of Materials, 19, 293-309 (1995). [12] ABAQUS, Theory Manual, Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen, Inc., (1989).

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