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Criminal Procedure Outline

Investigation
Kai N. Livramento

I. Fourth Amendment
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or Affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. When is the Fourth Amendment implicated? When a public actor intrudes into an area deemed on in which the citizen may reasonably expect privacy.

A. Introduction i) The right of the people


(a) Term of art: intended to refer only to a class of persons who are part of a national community or who have otherwise developed sufficient connection with this country to be considered a part of that community.1 (b) Illegal aliens: living in the United States would be covered. (c) Travelers: unclear but it appears that a temporary connection would afford protection. (a) Interpretations: 1. Warrant Preference the prophylactic interposition of a neutral magistrate between the police officer and the citizen prior to the search is the main protection afforded by the Fourth Amendment. 2. Reasonableness the reasonableness of a search does not turn on whether a warrant was obtained (or whether there was a recognized excuse for not seeking one), but rather on the contextual circumstances justifying the search and the manner in which it was conducted. (b) Historically: 1. The most consistent interpretation of the amendment is to read the Reasonableness Clause as the dominant clause 2. The concern was with the British general warrant. (c) Presently: 1. The Supreme Court reads the Warrant Clause as the dominant clause with exceptions; followed by the Reasonableness Clause. 2. Searches and seizures are presumed to be unreasonable unless carried out pursuant to a warrant. (a) The minimum showing necessary to support a warrant application; not used to demarcate reasonableness generally in search and seizure situations. (b) The Supreme Court has allowed for arrest without a warrant on the street so long as there was probable cause. (a) The Fourth Amendment applies only to governmental conduct. (b) Determining whether a private party is acting as an instrument of the state: 1. The degree of government engagement, knowledge, and or acquiescence with regard to the private actors conduct; and

ii) Reasonable Clause and the Warrant Clause

iii)Probable Cause

iv) State Action Requirement

United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez (1990)

Police officer directs an airline or hotel employee to open a travelers suitcase Railroads complying with federal regulations mandating drug screening of employees 2. The purpose underlying the private partys action Was he pursuing a governmental interest discovery of criminal activity or evidence thereof Was he acting to promote his own personal or business objectives which makes the action private in nature Law enforcement recipient of the items subjects them to additional examination; further examination must be substantial Sealed container filled with film canisters (pornographic) was turned over to FBI agents, who viewed them on a projector: triggers Plastic bags turned over to federal drug agents, who reopened it and subjected the powder to a field test for cocaine: did not trigger v) Remedies (a) The amendment establishes a right, but does not mention the consequences of a violation of that right. (b) Even with the exclusionary rule the question still remains as to whether this is constitutionally mandated.

B. What Constitutes a Search and Seizure: Reasonable Expectation of


Privacy

i) Katz v. United States


(a) Reasonable Expectation Test2,3 1. The citizen must have manifested an actual subjective expectation of privacy 2. That expectation is one that society (through the Court) accepts as objectively reasonable (b) Question: Does electronically listening and recording words from a public telephone booth constitute a search and seizure? 1. Fourth Amendment protects people, not places and its reach cannot turn solely upon whether a physical intrusion occurred. 2. Applicability derives from the concept of privacy: The Governments activities in electronically listening to and recording words violated the privacy upon which Katz justifiably relied while using the telephone booth and thus constituted search and seizure within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment.

ii) Application of Katz


(a) Subjective manifestation individuals must take affirmative steps to protect their privacy interest; otherwise, a police inspection will not constitute a search 1. Abandonment Does not trigger the Fourth Amendment
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Justice Harlans concurrence Reasonable Expectation of Privacy v. Reasonableness under the Circumstances Argument: If the Katz test is retained, technology will lead to no privacy, and police practice will incorporate that technology to create a reality of no privacy. In contrast, a reasonableness test is a flexible one that allows courts to continue to protect privacy as we transition into a world which no intrusion is technologically inconvenient.

Need not be explicit Leaving an apartment and not returning, including having a moving sale and not paying rent for six weeks = abandoned Leaving mail behind in a post office box and not paying for a year = abandoned A citizen who attempts to protect his private property from inspection after throwing a bag on a car to respond to a police officers inquiry = not abandoned Found when a person denies ownership of a container in the face of police inquiry Often considered as a question of whether the defendant has standing to assert a Fourth Amendment issue (b) Open Fields Doctrine police entry into open fields (unprotected area) is not protected45 1. Oliver v. United States (1984): only the curtilage, not the neighboring open fields, warrants the Fourth Amendment protections that attach to the home 2. United States v. Dunn (1987): factors of cartilage The proximity of the area claimed to be curtilage to the home Whether the area is included within an enclosure surrounding the home The nature of the uses to which the area is put The steps taken by the resident to protect the area from observation by people passing by (c) Access by Members of the Public if an aspect of a persons life is subject to scrutiny by other members of society, then that person has no legitimate expectation in denying equivalent access to police 1. Individuals, Informants, and Under Cover Agents Consensual Electronic Surveillance6 misplaced reliance on the loyalty of others is not entitled to constitutional protection; when on party to the conversation invites the government in, Fourth Amendment constraints do not apply Financial Records7 an individual who imparts financial information to a bank in the usual course of business has no reasonable expectation of privacy Pen Registers8 an individual who automatically conveys the numbers he dials to the telephone company for billing purposes has no reasonable expectation of privacy9 Electronic Pagers United States v. Meriwether: pager was seized in the on position and the agent recorded the next forty telephone numbers received by the pager.

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Hester v. United States (1924): The Court distinguished open fields from constitutionally protected areas like houses. Note: Even if property is within the curtilage, a visual inspection of that property from outside the curtilage does not constitute a search. 6 United States v. White (1971) 7 California Bankers Assn v. Shultz (1974); United States v. Miller (1976) 8 Smith v. Maryland (1979) 9 Congress has imposed statutory limitations on the use of pen registers with the Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986, 18 U.S.C. 3121 et seq. The statute prohibits the use of pen registers unless: (1) the provider gives consent, or (2) a court order is obtained. Probable cause is not needed because it is not a search.

Defendant had, in making the call, disclosed information to another member of the public, and therefore assumed the risk that his message would be received by whomever happened to be in possession of the pager at the time. United States v. Chan: officer activated the pagers memory and retrieved two telephone numbers. Distinguishable because the possessor of a pager has control over the electronically stored information and a reasonable expectation of privacy like that of a personal phone book (still held the search valid because it was reasonable in the context of a valid arrest) 2. Physical Setting and Vantage Point Trash California v. Greenwood (1988): trash collector may turn ones garbage over to the police at their request, and evidence of crime found inside is not a search. Public exposure of the trash forfeits any reasonable expectation of privacy in the bags Once the trash is conveyed to third-party collectors, the homeowner assumes the risk that they will turn bags over to police Shredded paper there is no constitutional protection from police scrutiny as to information received from a failed attempt at secrecy. The Fourth Amendment does not protect appellee when a third party expends the effort and expenses to solve the jigsaw puzzle created by shredding. Public Areas Homeless persons effects: Yes, a homeless person does not have a reasonable expectation of privacy in belongings stored on private property. No, a homeless person has a reasonable expectation of privacy in the contents of a duffel bag and cardboard box kept on public property. Persons characteristics: External = no search (voice, handwriting, fingerprints) Internal = search (blood type) Aerial Surveillance Airplane: Fenced-in backyard California v. Ciraolo (1986): the mere fact that an individual has taken measures to restrict some views of his activities does not preclude an officers observations from a public vantage point where he has a right to be and which renders the activities clearly visible. Industrial plant complex Dow Chemical Co v. United States (1986): taking of aerial from navigable airspace is not a search Low Flying Helicopter Florida v. Riley (1989): No search occurred because a member of the public could have similarly positioned himself in an aircraft and made the same observations Flight had been within legal parameters, did not interfere with the normal use of the greenhouse by way of undue noise, wind, dust, or threat of injury, and did not reveal any intimate details connected with the use of defendants home. Manipulation of Bags in Public Transit Bond v. U.S. (2000)10

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Note: Great case for defense attorneys. Chief Justice Rehnquist appears to have had enough with the strong hand activities of law enforcement at the peak of the war on drugs.

Holding: an agents physical manipulation of his luggage far exceeded the casual contact he could have expected from other passengers Application to Katz test: Bond sought to preserve privacy by using an opaque bag and placing that bag directly above his seat. When a bus passenger places a bag in an overhead bin, he expects that other passengers or bus employees may move it for one reason or another. He does not expect that other passengers or bus employees will, as a matter of course, feel the bag in an exploratory manner. 3. Investigation that Can Only Reveal Illegal Activity Canine Sniffs Closed luggage: not a search11 People and places: circuit split12 Routine traffic stop: not a search13 Chemical Testing for Drugs: not a search14 Urine Testing for Drugs: search15 4. Use of Technology to Enhance Inspection Thermal Detection Devices: Kyllo v. United States (2001) Emphasized the sanctity of the home and drew a firm line at the entrance to the house Device that is not in general public use, to explore details of the home that would previously have been unknowable without physical intrusion, the surveillance is a search and presumptively unreasonable without a warrant. Electronic Beepers (GPS): United States v. Knotts: no search because the movements of the car could have been observed by the naked eye. United States v. Karo: search because the police continued to monitor a beeper installed in a container after it was taken into a home where information revealed could not have been obtained through unaided surveillance. Other Sensory Enhancement Devices Telescope: not allowed when looking into a home16 Binoculars: allowed in places where a suspect might otherwise have exposed himself to public view17 Pre-existing hole in the wall: allowed because the transitory nature of a hotel diminished the expectation of privacy18
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United States v. Place (1983): A canine sniff by a well-trained narcotics detection dog does not require opening the luggage. Limited disclosure also ensures that the owner of the property is not subjected to the embarrassment and inconvenience entailed in less discriminate and more intrusive investigative methods. 12 People: Terry may be implicated. Places: home or public place 13 Illinois v. Caballes (2005): A seizure that is lawful at its inception can violate the Fourth Amendment if its manner of execution unreasonably infringes interests protected by the Constitution. Conducting a dog sniff would not change the character of a traffic stop that is lawful, unless the dog sniff itself infringed constitutionally protected interest in privacy. 14 United States v. Jacobsen (1984): A chemical test that merely discloses whether or not a particular substance is cocaine does not compromise any legitimate interest in privacy. 15 Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Assn (1989): drug testing of urine samples could uncover information about epilepsy, pregnancy or the use of prescription drugs; the process of collecting urine is intrusive and embarrassing. 16 United States v. Taborda (2d Cir. 1980) 17 United States v. Lace (2d Cir. 1982) 18 United States v. Mankani (2d Cir. 1984)

Flashing a flashlight through a darkened car: no search19 Aerial photographs that are subsequently magnified: see Dow Chemical Co. v. United States, allowed.

C. The Warrant Clause i) Purpose of the Warrant Clause:


(a) Interpose a disinterested magistrate between the police and the individual they seek to search or seize20 (b) Confine the scope of intrusion to the areas and items specified

(a) Neutral and detached magistrate 1. Cannot accompany the police as they executed a warrant 2. Cannot have a financial interest in the issuance of the warrant 3. Must have the training and experience necessary to meaningfully assess the probable cause showing (b) Probable cause 1. The government must be able to demonstrate a factually-based interest in people, places or things before using its power to disturb them. 2. Challenge to the probable cause element: Inadequate on its face so lacking in indicia of probable cause as to render belief in its existence entirely unreasonable Truthfulness of the facts set out Defendant must make a substantial preliminary showing that the affidavit contains False statement Made by the affiant police officer Either knowingly and intentionally or with reckless disregard for the truth Defendant must demonstrate that the false statement was necessary to the finding of probable cause If there was sufficient information even without the false statement, the misrepresentation is treated as harmless error. 3. If the defendant succeeds at making this showing Full evidentiary hearing Preponderance of the evidence that the affidavit contained a knowing or reckless falsehood If he establishes this Judge excises the false statements from the affidavit and determines whether the remainder makes out probable cause to search If it does not, then the search conducted pursuant to the warrant was unlawful (c) Oath or affirmation (affidavit) (d) Particularity requirement
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ii) Warrant Requirements:

Texas v. Brown (1983) Johnson v. United States (1948): The point of the Fourth Amendment, which often is not grasped by zealous officers, is not that it denies law enforcement the support of the usual inferences which reasonable men draw from evidence. Its protection consists in requiring that those inferences be drawn by a neutral and detached magistrate instead of being judged by the officer engaged in the often competitive enterprise of ferreting out crime.
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1. Particularity The place searched and the items seized be specifically and accurately described in the warrant 2. Good Faith Exception If not correctly described, the mistake is deemed to have been objectively reasonable 3. Plain View Doctrine The items must be in plain view while the officers are within the confines of the originally authorized search The items must be immediately apparent as contraband or evidence of crime, and not requiring any further search or analysis

D. Probable Cause The Standard for Search and Arrest i) Police officers observations: credibility is usually presumed ii) Informants and Anonymous Tips:
(a) Aquilar/Spinelli Two-Prong Test 1. Credibility of the informant Informant implicates themselves in criminal activity Independent corroboration by the police of specific facts Police officer may know the informant 2. Basis of the informants knowledge Detailed information Supplied by the informant from which it may reasonably be inferred that she is speaking from personal knowledge and not mere rumor or conjecture (b) Gates Totality of the Circumstances Test: rejects the rigid two-prong test 1. Is there a fair probability that contraband or evidence of a crime will be found in a particular place?21 2. Credibility of the informant 3. Basis of knowledge

iii)Accomplices: the confession of a co-participant is itself sufficient to establish


probable cause; no corroboration is required.

iv) Introduction to Arrests


(a) Arrest Warrant requirements: 1. Issued by a neutral and detached magistrate 2. Probable cause required focuses on facts and circumstances that connect the suspect to specific criminal activity 3. Suspect must be particularly identified in the warrant either by name or with sufficiently specific description (b) Warrantless Arrest requirements: probable cause to believe that the person has committed 1. A felony22

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This change was prompted by the Courts concern that rigorous application of the Aquilar/Spinelli approach would prevent the police from relying on anonymous tips. It substituted a totality-of- the-circumstances approach that looks at the overall reliability of a tip and in which a deficiency in one of the prongs may be compensated for by a strong showing as to the other, or by some other indicia of reliability. 22 United States v. Watson (1976): If an officer has probable cause to believe that a person has committed a felony, he can arrest the suspect in public without a warrant; even if there is sufficient time to seek an arrest warrant and no practical impediment to doing so.

2. A misdemeanor and the officer has probable cause to believe that the person: Will not be apprehended unless immediately arrested; or May cause injury to himself or others unless immediately arrested; or May damage property unless immediately arrested 3. A misdemeanor or petty misdemeanor in the officers presence (c) Arrests v. Summons 1. Rule: discretion to proceed by arrest or summons when custodial arrest is authorized.23 2. A custodial arrest is always reasonable if the officer has probable cause of criminal violation. 3. Why proceed with an arrest v. summons? Make sure you correctly identify the person If arrested, you can inventory their possessions and get around the search requirements Ensures the person comes to court Question of whether the person poses an immediate danger to themselves or society. (d) Use of excessive force 1. Rule: deadly force may not be used to prevent the escape of a felon24 2. Exceptions: It is necessary to prevent the escape and The officer has probable cause to believe that the suspect poses a significant threat of death or serious physical injury to the officer or others 3. Fourth Amendment standards of reasonableness apply:25 Severity of the crime at issue Whether the suspect poses an immediate threat to the safety of the officers or others Whether the suspect is actively resisting arrest or attempting to evade arrest by flight 4. Note: while an officer may use non-deadly force, the manner in which the force is asserted might be unreasonable (e) Protections against erroneous warrantless arrests 1. Prompt post-arrest assessment26 2. How prompt is prompt: 48 hours; prompt does not equal immediate 3. Burden-shifting test:27 Defendants burden within 48 hours Unreasonably delayed For the purpose of gathering additional evidence to justify the arrest Motivated by ill will against the arrested individual Delay for delays sake Courts have a substantial degree of flexibility in deciding reasonableness Unavoidable delays in transportation
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Atwater v. City of Lago Vista (2001) Tennessee v. Garner (1985) 25 Graham v. Connor (1989) 26 Gernstein v. Pugh (1975) 27 County of Riverside v. McLaughlin (1991)

Handling late-night bookings where no magistrate is available Obtaining the presence of the arresting officer who may be busy processing other suspects Governments burden after 48 hours Bona fide emergency or other extraordinary circumstances Not because it may take longer to consolidate pretrial proceedings Not because it is the weekend Note: Always question whether probable cause existed before the end of the 48 hours. Would the magistrate have concluded so before the time was up but before the suspect was before the magistrate?

v) Arrests in the home: Payton Rule


(a) Rule: an arrest warrant is required to enter and effect a nonexigent arrest of the subject in his own home, where there is reason to believe the suspect is within. (b) Is the location considered home or a public place? 1. Common hallway split (too broad or humble surroundings of the home) 2. Doorway of the subjects home public place28 3. Porch public place29 4. Homeless persons split 5. Hotels and motels home; Payton extends when the arrestee has rightful possession of the room 6. Third party home depends30 Rule: a search warrant must be obtained to look for a suspect in the home of a third party, absent exigent circumstances or consent. An arrest warrant does not sufficiently protect the privacy interest of a third party homeowner; this is not the case with the arrestee Note: does not apply when the arrestee lives in the home of the third party home owner. 7. Overnight guest home31 Rule: an arrest warrant is required under Payton to arrest a person who was an overnight guest in the home of a third party A persons status as an overnight guest is alone enough to show that he had an expectation of privacy in the home that society is prepared to accept as reasonable. 8. Temporary visitors public place32 Rule: an arrest warrant is not required under Payton for temporary visitors and brief visitors for business (legal or illegal) purposes The Court has taken a literal interpretation of the Fourth Amendments words in their house.

vi) Material Witnesses


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United States v. Santana (1976) United States v. Watson (5th Cir. 2001) 30 Steagald v. United States (1981) 31 Minnesota v. Olson (1990) 32 Minnesota v. Carter (1998)

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(a) 18 U.S.C.A. 3144 allows for the arrest of material witnesses where: 1. The testimony is material in a criminal proceeding 2. A subpoena is impracticable to secure their presence (b) Cannot be arrested because of: 1. Inability to comply with any condition of release if testimony can be secured by deposition 2. Further detention is not necessary to prevent a failure of justice

vii)

Enemy Combatants (a) Government may detain enemy combatants without a showing of probable cause to a civilian court (b) Prisoners of war and therefore outside the jurisdiction of a civilian court at best there is only a limited, deferential review at some point on whether the enemy combatant status is justified

E. Reasonable Suspicion The Standard for Stop and Frisk i) Reasonable Suspicion
(a) Reason to believe that a crime is about to be committed; more than a hunch (b) Look to officers unique experience and training33 (c) May be based upon information received from an informant, but need not carry all of the indicia of reliability required in probable cause analysis34 (d) May be based upon an anonymous telephone tip as long as the police are able to corroborate certain of its predicative details35 (e) Unprovoked flight from police in a high-crime area (a) Officer must have a particularized suspicion 1. Totality of the circumstances 2. Objective basis observations, information from police reports, considerations of the modes and patterns of operation of certain kinds of lawbreakers (b) Raise a suspicion that the particular individual being stopped is engaged in wrongdoing (c) Probabilities (a) Requirements: 1. Officer must be prepared to articulate the specific facts giving rise to reasonable suspicion that criminal activity is about to happen 2. Reasonable suspicion that the suspect may be armed and dangerous (b) Scope of protective search is restricted to what is necessary to discover weapons 1. Initial pat-down of the suspects clothing to determine whether there is a weapon

ii) Reasonable Suspicion Test: United States v. Cortez (1981)

iii)Terry Doctrine: Stop and Frisk

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United States v. Arvizu (2002): Border patrol officer and the minivan with the strange acting family Alabama v. White (1990): Under the Gates totality of the circumstances approach to probable cause, an informants veracity and basis of knowledge remain highly relevant in determining the value of the report of an informant. These factors are also relevant in the reasonable suspicion context, although allowance must be made in applying them for the lesser showing required to meet that standard. 35 Florida v. J.L. (2000): An anonymous tip lacking indicia of reliability of the kind contemplated in Adams and White does not justify a stop and frisk whenever and however it alleges the illegal possession of a firearm

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2. Followed by reach into pockets or other hidden areas if and only if the pat-down reveals the likely presence of a weapon

iv) What Constitutes a Stop or a Seizure of the Person?

(a) Mendenhall Free to Leave Test: 1. Totality of the circumstances 2. Reasonable person would have believed that he was not free to leave (b) Rule regarding stops: 1. Consent is required without a search warrant, in the absence of probable cause and exigent circumstances States burden to prove consent was obtained, and The consent was freely and voluntarily given Mere submission to a claim of lawful authority is insufficient showing of consent 2. Person approached by police need not answer any questions and can walk away Cannot be detained, even momentarily, without reasonable and objective grounds Simple refusal without more is not enough to meet this standard 3. If no detention then no stop/seizure within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment 4. Officers state of mind irrelevant; a stop only exists where there is a governmental termination of freedom of movement through means intentionally applied.36 (c) Examples of circumstances that might indicate a stop: 1. Threatening presence of several officers 2. Display of a weapon by an officer 3. Some physical touching of the person of the citizen 4. Use of language or tone of voice indicating that compliance with the officers request might be compelled (a) Airport Stops 1. An investigative detention must be temporary and last no longer than is necessary to effectuate the purpose of the stop.37 2. The investigative methods employed should be the least intrusive means reasonably available to verify or dispel the officers suspicion in a short period of time 3. Seizure Outside of the physical airport Officer approaches individual at his car after the person placed his bags in the car Notifies him that a tip said the bags have drugs in it Officer asks permission to search the luggage 4. Encounter: United States v. Mendenhall (1980) Inside of the physical airport Officers sat on either side of the person in a terminal Notifies him that they are cops looking for drugs Asked consent to search Informed of right to refuse and leave

v) Stop v. Encounter

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Brower v. County of Inyo(1989) Florida v. Royer (1983)

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(b) Street Encounters: California v. Hodari D (1991) 1. No seizure occurs where the police have not yet caught the subject 2. No seizure if officers have not placed any physical restraint upon him (c) Bus Sweeps 1. Florida v. Bostick (1991) police may approach bus passengers at random to ask questions and to request their consent to searches, provided a reasonable (innocent) person would understand that he or she is free to refuse. 2. United States v. Drayton (2002) police do not have to advise the passenger of his right to refuse consent because there were no threats, intimidation, or show of force, and no blocked exits. (d) Factory Sweeps: INS v. Delgado (1984) 1. Police questioning: by itself is unlikely to result in violation even where not told of their right not to refuse 2. Blocking exits: the presence of agents was only there to make sure everyone was questioned. 3. Not coercive or have the effect of custody: because they were at work, the employees werent going to leave in the foreseeable future

vi) Expansion of the Terry Doctrine

(a) Acceptable under Terry Doctrine: 1. Demand for identification Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial Dist. Court of Nevada (2004) 2. Protective sweeps in the home Maryland v. Buie (1990)38 Protective sweep = quick and limited search of a premises, incident to an arrest and conducted to protect the safety of police officers or others Conducted for safety purposes only (where someone could hide) not to prevent destruction of evidence May, without any additional justification, look in closets and other spaces in the immediate vicinity in which someone might hide (police safety) May also make a limited protective sweep of other portions of the premises if and only if they have reasonable suspicion that persons posing a danger are present there Limited in scope to a cursory inspection of those spaces where a person might be found May last no longer than is necessary to dispel the suspicion 3. Protective areas beyond the person Michigan v. Long (1983)39 Because a stop is only a temporary intrusion, the suspect will be permitted to reenter his automobile and he will then have access to any weapons inside.

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Police arrested Buie at his home, and conducted a protective sweep of the premises. At the time of the sweep, the officers had reasonable suspicion, but not probable cause, to believe that a dangerous person such as Buies associate might be hiding in the premises. Relied heavily on Terry and Long and held that the reasonable suspicion standard was an appropriate balance between the arrestees remaining privacy interest in the home and the officers interest in safety. 39 Police officers observed Long driving erratically before he swerved into a ditch. By the time the cops approached his car, Long was out of the car and appeared to be under the influence. He refused to produce a license and registration and began to walk toward the passenger compartment of the car. The officer flashed a light into the car and saw a hunting knife. He then conducted a protective search of the passenger side of the car finally finding marijuana.

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Compare: People v. Torres (1989)40 rejected Long as a matter of state constitutional law. Compare: United States v. Brown (8th Cir. 1990)41 upheld a search of a locked glove compartment when the officers had reasonable suspicion of drug activity (b) Unacceptable under Terry Doctrine: 1. Search for evidence Minnesota v. Dickerson (1993)42 Frisks are only for protective purposes Once it has been determined there are no weapons the frisk must end; search for evidence is not permitted 2. Other people in area during search Ybarra v. Illinois (1979)43 Mere presence during the execution of a search is not enough to provide a reasonable belief that an individual poses a risk of harm to the officers Require additional specific facts to indicate he was armed and dangerous

vii)

Stop v. Arrest (a) General principles: 1. An investigative detention must be temporary and last no longer than is necessary to effectuate the purpose of the stop 2. Investigative methods employed should be the least intrusive means reasonably available to verify or dispel the officers suspicion in a short period of time 3. States burden 4. Standard common sense and ordinary human experience must govern over rigid criteria (United States v. Sharpe (1985) (b) The following will not automatically indicate an arrest: 1. Drawing a weapon 2. Handcuffing 3. Fingerprinting brief detention in the field for the purpose of fingerprinting 4. Movement to the crime scene for purposes of identification 5. Preliminary investigation of the suspects identity 6. Questioning concerning the suspicious circumstances giving rise to the stop 7. Stop after a stop Allowed where reasonable suspicion arises to justify another stop Allowed after consent (c) Interrogation beyond the confines of Terry: Arrest 1. Forced transportation to police station for questioning: Dunaway v. New York (1979) police cannot detain a suspect and transport him to the stationhouse for questioning without

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It is unrealistic to assume, as the Supreme Court did in Michigan v. Long, that having been stopped and questioned without incident, a suspect who is about to be released and permitted to proceed on his way would upon reentry into his vehicle, reach for a concealed weapon and threaten the departing police officers safety. 41 Since weapons and violence are frequently associated with drug transactions, the officers reasonably believed that the individuals with whom they were dealing were armed and dangerous. 42 Police officer suspecting drug activity and conducted a lawful stop and pat down. He felt a small hard object that he determined was not a weapon but continued to squeeze and prod finally concluding it was drugs. 43 Court refused to uphold the frisk of a patron of a bar who happened to be present when the police arrived to conduct a search of the bar pursuant to a valid search warrant.

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probable cause, even if the detention is not deemed to be an arrest under state law44 Kaupp v. Texas (2003) confirmed that a forced transportation and interrogation of a suspect constitutes an arrest for which probable cause is required. 2. Fingerprinting plus: Davis v. Mississippi (1969) subjected to two fingerprinting sessions and interrogation45 Hayes v. Florida (1985) forced transportation to be fingerprinted46

F. Warrantless Searches and Seizures i) Exceptions that Require Probable Cause


(a) The Emergency Exception Exigent Circumstances 1. Prerequisites: The circumstances presented the police with a sufficiently compelling urgency, making resort to the warrant process both impracticable and risky and The police had justification amounting to probable cause to believe that items relating to crime would be found (in the search) or that the suspect had committed a crime (in the case of an arrest) 2. Consideration of the following factors: The degree of urgency, taking into account the amount of time necessary to obtain a warrant (are telephonic warrants available) The reasonableness of the belief that the contraband was about to be destroyed or removed The possibility of danger to the police or general public who are watching the location Common behavioral characteristics of persons involved in the particular criminal activity Any indication that the suspects were aware the police are in pursuit Whether the emergency arose from action of the police 3. Hot pursuit doctrine Warden v. Hayden (1967) Rule: When police are in immediate and continuous pursuit of a suspect fleeing the scene of a crime, they are permitted to chase him into a building or home without a warrant to effect an arrest While inside, they may conduct a warrantless search for the suspect and any weapons to which he may have access Police must have probable cause to believe the suspect has just committed a crime and Police dont have to see the crime or the perpetrators flight
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Detention for custodial interrogation regardless of its label intrudes so severely on interests protected by the Fourth Amendment as necessarily to trigger the traditional safeguards against illegal arrest. 45 Invalidated a round-up of 25 Black youths for questioning and fingerprinting, in an effort to match prints found around a window entered by a rape suspect. While fingerprinting is less serious an intrusion on liberty than other searches, that repeated fingerprinting is not a real danger because it would not be necessary, that fingerprinting is extremely reliable, and that it can be done at a convenient time and does not offer opportunities for harassment. But in this case, it violated the Fourth Amendment. 46 Police investigating a rape only had reasonable suspicion but not probable cause to believe that Hayes was the perpetrator.

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Probable cause from reliable sources He is in the particular dwelling Not applicable when: Pursuit turns cold Minor crime47 Person being pursued has to know that they are being pursued 4. Police and Public Safety48 Police may enter a home without a warrant when they have an objectively reasonable basis for believe that an occupant is seriously injured or imminently threatened with such injury 5. Risk of Destruction of Evidence49 Police may secure the premises to prevent person from entering while they await a warrant (reasonable seizure) Police may seek a telephonic warrant if available 6. Seriousness of the underlying offense no offense is too major or too minor but that there must be a factual showing of exigency50,63 (b) Search Incident to Arrest 1. Requirements: Prerequisite: underlying arrests must be lawful Based on probable cause to believe the suspect has committed a crime Valid arrest warrant in the case of an arrest in a private building General rule: arrest must precede the search Scope: Chimel v. California dual justification Limited to the person of the arrestee (including pockets) The grab area from which he could reach weapons or evidence Contemporaneous: search must occur at the time of the arrest51 However, where it is too close to call, the Courts will not invalidate the search52 2. Broadening the scope of Chimel and rejection of case-by-case review in favor of categorical rules: United States v. Robinson (1973): increased the license to search the immediate area by authorizing seizure and opening of containers53
47

Welsh v. Wisconsin (1984): While withholding decision on whether the Fourth Amendment imposes an absolute ban on warrantless home arrests for certain minor offense, the Court held that the gravity of the offense for which the suspect is sought is an important factor to consider in applying the emergency exception. Home entry should rarely be sanctioned when there is probable cause to believe that only a minor offense has been committed. 48 Brigham City v. Stuart (2006): The role of a peace officer includes preventing violence and restoring order, not simply rendering first aid to casualties; an officer is not like a boxing referee, poised to stop a bout only if it becomes one-sided. 49 Illinois v. McArthur (2001): Police had probable cause to believe that McArthur had hidden marijuana in his home (from his wife - able to assess reliability; knew informant had first hand knowledge and opportunity to observe; informants report reflected her knowledge and opportunity). Police had a legitimate concern with destruction of evidence. Police made reasonable efforts to reconcile their law enforcement needs with the demands of personal privacy. Police imposed the restraint for a limited period of time no longer than reasonably necessary for the police, acting with diligence, to obtain the warrant. 50 Mincey v. Arizona (1978): attempt for a murder scene exception (failed) 51 Once the subject is securely in custody and the immediate exigencies of the arrest disappear, so too does the excuse for circumventing the warrant process. 52 Rawlings v. Kentucky (1980): Where the formal arrest followed quickly on the heels of the challenged search of petitioners person, we do not believe it particularly important that the search of petitioners person, we do not believe it particularly important that the search preceded the arrest rather than vice versa. 53 Held that a cigarette pack found on the arrestees person could be removed and opened by the officer at the time of the arrest.

16

New York v. Belton (1981):Entire interior of the passenger compartment (including containers therein) of automobiles, even if subjects have already been removed from the vehicle and cannot actually reach into it54 Thornton v. United States (2004): Even if arrestee is approached outside of the car, police may still search the passenger compartment of the automobile 3. Withdrawal (not overrule) from Belton: Arizona v. Gant (2009) The arrestee is unsecured and within reaching distance of the passenger compartment at the time of the search; or It is reasonable to believe evidence relevant to the crime of arrest might be found in the vehicle (okay under Belton and Thornton) 4. No arrest = no vehicle search: Where an officer opts to issue a traffic citation to a suspect in lieu of an arrest may not search the vehicle55 (c) Automobile Search and the Movable Container Doctrine 1. The Carroll Doctrine: police may search an automobile without a warrant so long as they have probable cause to believe it contains evidence of criminal activity56 Note: The right to search and the validity of the seizure is not dependent on the right to arrest; distinguishable from a search of an automobile incident to the arrest of the driver 2. Expansion of the Carroll Doctrine: Car that had been stopped on the road but was search subsequently at the police station after it had been seized and its occupants taken into custody.57 In light of White58 and Thomas59, lower courts have interpreted Coolidge60 to mean that a warrant is required only if the officers had a clear opportunity to obtain a warrant before seizing the car Chambers is based on the rationale that due to its mobility, a car can be seized pending a warrant; and a warrantless search is permitted because the search of a car is no more intrusive than would be the seizure of the car pending a warrant But if the original seizure itself could have been preceded by a warrant, then the premise of Chambers is missing and the automobile exception ought not to apply 3. Rationale California v. Carney (1985):
54 55

Permitted the pockets of a jacket found on the rear seat to be opened while the arrestees stood outside and away from the car. Knowles v. Iowa (1998): In the absence of an arrest, neither rationale of Chimel protection of the officer or prevention of the destruction of evidence applies. 56 Carroll v. United States (1925): Prohibition era case 57 Chambers v. Maroney (1970): The Court reasoned that because the police had probable cause to believe the car contained evidence of a recent robbery, and thus could have lawfully searched it on the road (under Carroll), it was constitutionally permissible to conduct the delayed search as well. 58 Texas v. White (1975): Held that police had probable cause to search the automobile at the scene immediately after arresting White for attempting to pass fraudulent checks at a bank drive-through window. Such probable cause remained even when the car was towed to the station and constitutionally searched there without a warrant. 59 Michigan v. Thomas: Held that once the inventory search of the glove compartment revealed contraband, a warrantless search was constitutionally expanded to include the air vents without any showing of exigent circumstances. 60 Coolidge v. New Hampshire (1971): Held that the Carroll Doctrine was inapplicable because there were no exigent circumstances justifying dispensing with the warrant requirement because the initial intrusion was unjustified without a warrant, the police had already acquired a warrant, albeit defective, knew for weeks where the car would be, and arrested him at home and his car towed so he had no access to it so as to destroy evidence.

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Ready mobility Diminished expectation of privacy Continuing governmental regulation of cars Control of driving by way of traffic laws 4. Motor homes Supreme Court would not distinguish between automobiles worthy or unworthy of the warrant exception, but noted that it did not pass on the application of the vehicle to a motor home that is situated in a way or place that objectively indicates that it is being used as a residence. Some relevant factors: Location Whether the vehicle is licensed Whether it is connected to utilities Whether it has convenient access to a public road 5. Movable Containers General rule: mobility justified seizure upon probable cause, but that a warrant was required to search the container, unless emergency circumstances rendered a seizure insufficient to protect the state interest61 Movable containers v. Automobiles: Luggage contents are not open to public view Luggage is not subject to regular inspections and official scrutiny on a continuing basis Luggage is intended as a repository of personal effects In the car: Distinction between probable cause to search the car and probable cause to search only a container in the car Arkansas v. Sanders (1979) warrant is required to search a suitcase that had been placed in the trunk of a taxi United States v. Ross (1982) had a warrant to search the entire car for drugs, therefore could search everything in it because contraband goods rarely are strewn across the trunk or floor of a car (undermines Sanders) Adoption of a categorical rule California v. Acevedo (1991) Police may search an automobile and any containers within it when they have probable cause to believe contraband or evidence of crime is present anywhere inside Limit on scope of permissible search: i. Derives from the size and shape of the items sought ii. Police may search only where such items may be hidden iii. Does not matter that the container in question is known to the officer to be the property of a passenger not suspected of criminal activity
61

United States v. Chadwick (1977)

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Delayed search of containers Court would not foreclose the possibility that an owner of a vehicle or its contents might attempt to prove that delay in completion of a vehicle search was unreasonable because it adversely affected a privacy or possessory interest62 Search of passengers property Rule: permissible where there is probable cause to believe that drugs were in the car in which the purse was located Policy: Balancing of the relative interests weigh decidedly in favor of allowing searches of passengers belongings because of the reduced expectation of privacy in and the mobility of autos Passengers in cars more likely engaged in a common enterprise with the driver and have the same interest in concealing the fruits or the evidence of their wrongdoing Passengers proximity enables them to hide contraband in each others belongings as readily as in other containers in the car

ii) Exceptions that Require Reasonable Suspicion


(a) Stop and Frisk (b) Roadblocks, Checkpoints and Suspicion-less Seizures 1. Special needs exceptions balancing test Governmental purpose: importance of the administrative objective to the public interest Privacy concerns Scope and degree of intrusion Degree of discretion allowed to official Degree of expectation of privacy (regulated v. non-regulated business) 2. The primary purpose cannot be to investigate evidence of a crime Delaware v. Prouse (1979)63 highway traffic stops for the purpose of checking license and registration City of Indianapolis v. Edmond (2001)64 highway traffic stop for the purpose of interdicting illegal drugs Note: In United States v. Davis (D.C. Cir. 2001), the court upheld a checkpoint whose primary purpose was to remedy the traffic problems caused by drug dealing. The community had complained that drug dealers and buyers in cars were speeding, committing illegal u-turns and causing traffic congestion. 3. Acceptable primary purposes: United States v. Martinez-Fuerte (1976)65 regulating the flow of illegal aliens (national security interest)
62 63

United States v. Johns (1985) Other problems with the program was the ad hoc nature and unconstrained discretion 64 Other problems with the program (unlike checking for DUI) is that checking for drugs is not necessary to prevent the type of immediate, vehicle-bound threat to life and limb. 65 Program is also acceptable because it is (1) minimally intrusive; (2) effects all motorists; (3) motorists are not surprised by a fixed checkpoint; (4) limited discretion; (5) policy decision with politically accountable and related to the allocation of limited enforcement resources

19

Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz (1990)66 temporary checkpoints for DUI Illinois v. Lidster (2004)67 temporary checkpoint to obtain information from motorists about a crime committed the week before at the same location Distinguishable from Edmond because the law enforcement purpose here was not to determine whether the motorists themselves were implicated in crime, but instead to seek their help in solving the earlier crime. Individualized suspicion has little role to play in this context 4. Note: The discovery of evidence of crimes in the course of an otherwise proper administrative inspection does not render that search illegal or administrative scheme suspect.68

iii)Administrative and Inventory Searches

(a) Inventory searches 1. Nature of inventory searches Serve a caretaking function and are not designed to uncover evidence of criminal activity Protect the owners property while it is in custody Protect the police against claims of lost or stolen property Protect the public from potential danger 2. Probable cause not required: Unrelated to criminal activity 3. Requirements: Conducted according to standardized procedures or established protocol Standard practice must be that of the department and not simply the routine followed by the individual officer Discretion of the officer must be constrained by standard criteria and be exercised on the basis of something other than suspicion of criminal activity69 4. Insistence on procedures serves three purposes: Ensures evenhanded treatment of all subjects Precludes (or at least discourages) use of the inventory as a pretext for an investigatory search Ensures that the intrusion is limited in scope to the extent necessary to carry out the caretaking function (b) Administrative searches 1. Gun Dealers example70 Authorized warrantless inspections of gun dealers because illegal weapons can be quickly removed Pervasively regulated businesses engender lesser privacy expectations among their owners, who have implicitly consented to strict governmental monitoring 2. What is a pervasively regulated business? History of regulation in the industry Hazardous nature of the enterprise

66

Program is also acceptable because of its (1) connection between the imperative highway safety and law enforcement practice; (2) effects all motorists; (3) minimally intrusive and inconvenient; (4) policy decision 67 This is the first time the court permitted suspicion-less stops for the investigation of past crimes. 68 New York v. Burger, 482 U.S. 691 (1987) 69 Colorado v. Bertine (1987): The Court upheld an inventory conducted pursuant to criteria that allowed the officer to choose between impounding the vehicle or parking it locked in a public place (and thus not searching it all). 70 United States v. Biswell (1972)

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iv) Warrantless Intrusion Requiring No Justification: Consent

(a) Voluntary Consent 1. Rule: A search based upon voluntary consent is reasonable even in the absence of a warrant or any articulable suspicion A person cannot be penalized for exercising the right to refuse to permit a search71 2. Factors:72 Fact-specific Totality of the circumstances Police tactics used to secure the consent Custodial status (not dispositive) Particular vulnerabilities of the subject (age, intelligence, level of education, emotional state) Note: not attitude, because it is inherently unverifiable and unquantifiable Knowledge of the right to refuse (by itself is not determinative) 3. Standard: whether a reasonable person in the subjects position would have felt free to decline the officers request. 4. Burden of proof: Government73 A weak showing by the government on several of the factors substantially increases the likelihood that consent will be found involuntary74 (b) Third Party Consent 1. Actual authority75 Does not rest on the law of property, but rather on mutual use of the property by persons generally having joint access or control for most purposes, Reasonable to recognize that any of the co-habitants has the right to permit the inspection in his own right Assumption of risk that one may permit the common area to be searched 2. Apparent authority76 is based on the reasonable belief of the officers that the third party had authority to consent Three categories of situations77 An officer would never be justified in believing that the consenter has authority, regardless of what the consent says A reasonable officer would usually think that the consenter does not have authority, but the officer could be justified in

71

United States v. Prescott (9th Cir. 1978): Passive refusal to consent to a warrantless search is privileged conduct which cannot be considered as evidence of criminal wrongdoing. This reasoning was necessary to protect the exercise of a constitutional right. 72 Schneckloth v. Bustamonte (1973) 73 Bumper v. North Carolina(1968) 74 United States v. Gonzalez-Basulto (5th Cir. 1990) 75 United States v. Matlock (1974): A girlfriend who shared defendants bedroom could consent to its search, thereby waiving his rights. 76 Illinois v. Rodriguez (1990): The third party was Rodriquezs female friend, who had, unknown to the officer, moved out of his apartment a month before the search and retained a key without permission. When speaking to the officers who were seeking consent, she referred to the premises as our apartment and opened the door with a key and let them in. 77 United States v. Jenkins (6th Cir. 1996)

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thinking otherwise if the consenter provides additional information indicating common authority A reasonable officer would usually assume that a person in the position of the consenter does have authority over the space 3. Family Members Minors Parents generally have control over entire premises to consent to the search of the entire house, even a minors bedroom78 Consent will not be valid if it is clear that part of the premises is exclusively reserved for a child79 Minors have authority to permit the search of a resident, except again as to exclusive zones where they have no right of access Spouses Spouses are generally presumed to have authority to consent to the search of a premises jointly occupied by both spouses Courts have rejected a per se rule 4. Acceptance by one; Refusal by the other a physically present cooccupants stated refusal to permit entry renders a warrantless search unreasonable and invalid as to that person80 (c) Scope of Consent 1. Determined by a standard of objective reasonableness81 - where you would reasonably find evidence of the illegal items 2. It is up to the citizen to clarify any restrictions or ambiguities (d) Withdrawing Consent 1. Consent cannot be revoked retroactively after the officer has found incriminating information 2. But the officers right to continue with a consent search can be terminated by the defendant or by a third party if the officer is relying on third party consent 3. Withdrawal of consent cannot be used to create probable cause or reasonable suspicion to continue searching

v) The Plain View & Plain Touch Doctrine

(a) Plain View Doctrine 1. Permits an officer to make a warrantless seizure of incriminating items that he/she comes upon while otherwise engaged in a lawful arrest, entry or search 2. Does not permit a search 3. Only allows a seizure of something already discovered (b) Requirements for lawful plain view seizure: 1. The officers original intrusion is lawful 2. The item is observed while the officer is confining her activities to the permissible scope of that intrusion (lawful right of access to the object itself)

78 79

United States v. Peterson (4th Cir. 1975) In re Scott K. (1979) 80 Georgia v. Randolph (2006) 81 Florida v. Jimeno (1991): Consented to a search of a car. The owner says yes and the police find evidence of drugs in bags that were in the car. Defendant claimed that the police exceeded the scope of consent because he only agreed to search the car.

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3. It is immediately apparent that the item is contraband or evidence of crime, without the necessity for any further examination or search Note: Horton v. California (1990) eliminated the prior requirement that the discovery of the item in plain view be inadvertent. Note: Arizona v. Hicks (1987) held that probable cause is necessary to justify a search that precedes a plain view seizure (c) Minnesota v. Dickerson (1993) when a police officer who is conducting a lawful pat down search for weapons feels something that plainly is contraband, the object may be seized even though it is not a weapon

vi) Pretextual Stops: Whren v. United States (1996)

(a) Rule: ulterior motives do not invalidate police conduct otherwise justified on the basis of probable cause (b) Equal protection issues82: 1. In order to file selective-prosecution claims 2. Demonstrate that the prosecutorial policy had Discriminatory effect (similarly situated individuals of a different race were not prosecuted) and Discriminatory purpose (c) Mistakes: 1. Of fact does not automatically negate the validity of a stop (objectively reasonable basis for believing the vehicle was not in conformity with the law) 2. Of law a stop or arrest will be deemed unreasonable

G. Remedies i) Background of the Exclusionary Rule83


(a) Federal Courts Weeks v. United States (1914) 1. Limited to cases where the illegal search was conducted by federal officers and the evidence was sought to be admitted in a federal criminal proceeding. 2. Explicitly rejected the notion that the rule should apply to violations by state or local police 3. Evidentiary rule not a constitutional rule an exercise of the Courts supervisory power over the federal courts 4. Problems with the decision in state affairs: Silver platter method federal officials would allow state/local police to obtain evidence illegally and then deliver it to the feds Abolished by Elkins v. United States (1960) the purpose of the exclusionary rule is to deter to compel respect for the constitutional guaranty in the only effectively available way by removing the incentive to disregard it. 5. Themes: Exclusionary rule is the only effective means of protecting Fourth Amendment rights

82 83

United States v. Armstrong (1996) The exclusionary rule is not constitutionally required, in part because the violation of a Fourth Amendment right occurs at the time of the original police intrusion.

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The interest in judicial integrity requires that the courts not sanction illegal searches by admitting the fruits of illegality into evidence (b) State Courts Mapp v. Ohio (1961) 1. Explicitly overruled Wolf v. Colorado (1949)84 2. Now the remedy is constitutionally required. 3. Reasoning for overturning Wolf: 6 members of the majority were no longer on the bench Validity of the facts were no longer controlling Trend among the states moved towards accepting the exclusionary rule Fourth Amendments right of privacy has been declared enforceable against the States through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth, it is enforceable against them by the same sanction of exclusion as is used against the Federal Government Judicial integrity Deterrence 4. Dissent: Procedural symmetry and administrative convenience is insufficient Really not concerned with remedy but with fairness in judicial procedure (c) Evidence seized illegally but constitutionally 1. Violations of state law General rule: A violation of state law that is not itself a violation of the Fourth Amendment will not result in exclusion of evidence in federal court. Whether exclusion will occur in state court is a matter of state law. Exceptions: State standards are effectively incorporated into federal law State ethical standards do not necessarily apply to federal authorities (i.e. McDade Amendment) 2. Violation of federal law and federal rules of criminal procedure General rule: The courts have been reluctant to impose exclusion as a judicial remedy for a violation of a federal statute or regulation, or a FRCP Where Congress has not provided expressly for exclusion (see the wiretapping statute), the courts ordinarily have not imposed exclusion as a remedy

ii) Procedural Triggers for the Exclusionary Rule


(a) Court documents 1. Motion to return evidence 2. Motion to suppress evidence even if the evidence seized is contraband, someone elses property, or otherwise not returnable Directed to the use of the evidence not the actual return Better to occur pre-trial If at trial it has to be made when the evidence is offered
84

The Court held that a prosecution in a State court for a State crime, the Fourteenth Amendment does not forbid the admission of evidence obtained by an unreasonable search and seizure. Justices unanimously agreed that he prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures applied to the States. But they disagreed as to whether the exclusionary rule was a constitutionally protected remedy (rights are fundamental, not remedies)

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(b) Attacking the warrant Franks v. Delaware (1978) hearing 1. Purpose challenge the truthfulness of the warrant application (go back to Gates if an informant or attack the actual truthfulness of the cop) 2. Presumption affidavit supporting the warrant is valid 3. Standard preponderance of the evidence 4. Burden defendant Show deliberate falsehood or reckless disregard for the truth Offer of proof Specifically point out the portion of the warrant affidavit that is claimed to be false Not conclusory statements Not supported by the mere desire to cross-examine Insufficient evidence Allegations of negligence or innocent mistake Misstatement 5. Impeachable party Officer-affiant Not the governmental informant 6. If the requirements are met: But there remains sufficient content in the warrant affidavit to support a finding of probable cause = no hearing And the remaining content in the warrant affidavit does not support a finding of probable cause = hearing (but doesnt mean the defendant will prevail) (c) Suppression hearing 1. The government has the privilege to protect the identity of informants But the judge can require the government to reveal the informants identity if that is necessary to decide whether the officer is a believable witness 2. Simmons v. United States: When a defendant testifies on the question of standing at a suppression hearing, the government may not use his testimony against him on the question of guilt or innocence Impeachment Simmons left this question open Lower courts have held that Simmons does not prevent the use of suppression hearing testimony for impeachment purposes If the defendant calls a witness to testify at the suppression hearing, the government is not precluded by Simmons from using that testimony against the defendant

iii)Constitutional Triggers for the Exclusionary Rule


(a) The suppression remedy is triggered only where: 1. The connection between the secondary evidence and the original violation is close and unattentuated; and 2. There is no independent lawful means that led, or would have led, police to the evidence. (b) Questions to ask: 1. Attenuation: Whether the chain become too long or otherwise attenuated so it can be said that the taint has dissipated?

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Time frame The longer the period, the more likely attenuation will be found. In United States v. Ceccolini (1978),85 where four months elapsed between the initial illegality and the interview of the live witness, the Court concluded that the taint had dissipated. Occurrence of intervening events The more links in the chain between the illegality and the secondary evidence, the more attenuated the connection. Events representing an individuals free will (see Wong Suns decision to make a statement or a suspects consent to a search), are likely to be viewed as breaking the connection Confessions Look to the number of days that have passed between the arrest and the confession Voluntary confession may break the chain of causation Whether the suspect received proper Miranda warnings prior to the confession Note: warnings are not per se sufficient to purge the taint of a prior illegal arrest; it is an important factor in weighing against application of the exclusionary rule86 Underlying constitutional protection In New York v. Harris, the police were armed with probable cause but without an arrest warrant (required by Payton v. New York), arrested the suspect in his home. The Court did not apply the exclusionary rule to the statement made at the police station because the purpose of the Payton warrant requirement, protection of the privacy of the home, was fully accomplished by suppressing the statement made in the home. Distinguishable from Brown v. Illinois where the police lacked probable cause to arrest in the first place causing everything to be suppressed. 2. Independent source: Whether the police secured the evidence through an independent source Live witnesses Where live witness testimony is available, suppression requires a closer link to the initial illegality than is the case with physical evidence The Court is not willing to permanently disable a cooperative witness from testifying.87
85

An unlawful discovery of betting slips in an envelope on a flower shop cash register led police months later to a witness, who testified against the shop owner at his trial. 86 Brown v. Illinois (1975): If Miranda warnings, by themselves, were held to attenuate the taint of an unconstitutional arrest, regardless of how wanton and purposeful the Fourth Amendment violation, the effect of the exclusionary rule would be substantially diluted. Illegal arrests would be encouraged by the knowledge that evidence derived there from could well be made admissible at trial by the simple expedient of giving Miranda warnings. Any incentives to avoid Fourth Amendment violations would be eviscerated by making the warnings, in effect, a cure-all. 87 United States v. Ceccolini: Witnesses are not like guns or documents which remain hidden from view until one turns over a sofa or opens a filing cabinet. Witnesses can, and often do, come forward and offer evidence entirely of their own volition. And, evaluated properly, the degree of free will necessary to dissipate the taint will very likely be found more often in the case of live witness testimony than other kinds of evidence.

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But, if the witness was questioned immediately following the illegal search, the officers question was prompted by the illegal activity, and the witness was only discovered as a result of the illegal activity this will be suppressed. Physical evidence In Murray v. United States (1988), the police illegally entered a warehouse without a warrant and observed bales believed to be marijuana. They did not disturb the bales and left to seek a warrant. In their affidavit in support of the warrant, the police relied solely on information they would later contend they had prior to the illegal entry they did not include the bales of marijuana. 3. Inevitable discovery: Whether the police would have inevitably secured the evidence through another means? Even if the evidence in question is found to have been the fruit of the poisonous tree, suppression can be avoided if the prosecution establishes that the evidence would have ultimately been discovered anyway by lawful means. In Nix v. Williams, the initial illegality was a violation of the suspects Sixth Amendment rights leading to the discovery of a dead body. Despite the straight line of causation from the constitutional violation to the secondary evidence, the Court held allowed the evidence in because the body would have been discovered shortly anyway by a search party of volunteers operating in the area. Rule there must be a basis in fact, readily verifiable, for the conclusion that discovery would have (not could have) occurred. (c) Deterrence rationale offending officers should not be placed in a better position as a result of an illegality; but they should not be deprived of evidence, or put in a worse position, that they actually secured through an independent source, or would have inevitably secured notwithstanding the illegality.

iv) Limitations to the Exclusionary Rule


(a) Standing 1. Analysis: Was the illegal activity a Fourth Amendment violation? Was the individuals personal Fourth Amendment rights violated? Has there been attenuation or was it a direct fruit of illegality? 2. General Rule: only those who are actual victims of the alleged violation have standing to challenge it.88, 89 The doctrine prevents A from complaining about an infringement of Bs rights. Only if the evidence were offered against B would the exclusionary remedy be available, and then only to B. 3. Who is a victim? Automatic standing and property law: Jones v. United States90
88

Rakas v. Illinois (1978): A person who is aggrieved by an illegal search and seizure only through the introduction of damaging evidence secured by a search of a third persons premises or property has not had any of his Fourth Amendments rights infringed. 89 FRCP 41(e): A party moving to suppress evidence must be a person aggrieved. 90 Jones was staying at the apartment searched.

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Property law Anyone legitimately on the premises where the search occurs, even if not owners or lessees of the property. Automatic standing any defendant charged with a possessory offense because in order to establish standing to challenge the search, the accused had to admit the contraband was his and thus incriminate himself. Katz analysis and rejecting the property prong: Rakas v. Illinois91 Abandons the language legitimately on the premises replaced by an expectation of privacy analysis adopted in Katz New test:92 Was this a Fourth Amendment violation Was the individuals personal Fourth Amendment rights violated; whether this particular defendants reasonable expectation of privacy was intruded upon? Rejecting the automatic standing prong: United States v. Salvucci93 Possession of a seized good should not be used as a substitute for a factual finding that the owner of the good had a legitimate expectation of privacy in the area searched Issue of fairness 4. Take-away lacking a possessory interest in or a close connection to the place searched, defendants will not be permitted to purse claims of unconstitutional search and seizure Rawlings v. Kentucky (1980) drugs in a purse has no standing Defendant challenged a search of his female companions purse, in which he had hidden drugs. The Court concluded that he had no reasonable expectation of privacy in the place searched (the purse), and his rights were not implicated. Known companion for a short time Had not sought or received access to the purse Had no right to exclude others from access to the purse By placing the drugs in the purse he failed to take normal precautions to maintain his privacy Defendant admitted he had no subjective expectation that the purse would be free from governmental intrusion United States v. Payner (1980)stolen bank documents has no standing Police stole a bank officials briefcase, remove and photographed hundreds of documents to use against the defendant.
91

The Court concluded that the search of the car did not violate the rights of the passengers, who asserted neither a property interest in the place searched nor in the items seized, and thus had no expectation of privacy. The Court emphasized that the places searched the glove compartment and under the seat were areas in which mere passengers (in contrast with the cars owner) would not normally have a legitimate expectation of privacy. 92 Rakas rejected the target theory because the Court believed that there will be enough deterrence since the persons whose rights were violated could have the evidence suppressed against them and it will be too hard to administer. Arguments for the target theory gives huge incentive for police to violate because they know it can not be suppressed; civil suits arent cheap and unlikely for people to pursue this avenue (see Mapp v. Ohio). 93 Overruled Jones v. United States. The Court had previously resolved the possession defendants dilemma in Simmons v. United States (1968), holding that an incriminatory admission at a suppression hearing could not be used against him at trial.

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The Court held that supervisory power does not authorize a federal court to suppress otherwise admissible evidence on the ground that it was seized unlawfully from a third party not before the court (includes Rakas and Rawlings) Minnesota v. Olson (1990) temporary overnight quest has standing Overnight guest did not have a key and was never alone in the home The Court held that society recognizes a guests expectation of privacy in the hosts home in such a situation. Minnesota v. Carter (1998) presence in the home of another Distinguished from Olson Purely commercial nature of the transaction sole purpose of packaging cocaine in exchange for some of the product Relatively short period of time on the premises only two hours Lack of any previous connection between the defendant and the home owner had never been to the apartment before Just simply permitted on the premises No reasonable expectation of privacy, therefore do not have to decide whether the police officers observation constituted a search (b) Good Faith Exception 1. Search warrants United States v. Leon (1984) valid on its face Background: warrant found to have been issued without an adequate showing of probable cause but appeared to valid on its face. Holding: the police officers were deemed to have objectively reasonably relied upon it in their execution of the search Reasoning: the minimal possibility of deterrence of violations in the future is outweighed by the substantial costs of suppressing the evidence, namely, interference with the truth-finding function of the trial and the freeing of guilty parties. Note: The exclusionary remedy is directed against police officers, not judges and magistrates who are neutral judicial officers with no stake in the outcome of particular criminal prosecutions. Massachusetts v. Sheppard (1984) erroneously filled out by judge Background: officers conducting a homicide investigation applied for a warrant to search for evidence connecting the defendant to the murder of his girlfriend. It was Sunday, so the only standard application form the officers could locate was for a narcotics search. The judge said he would modify it but failed to do so and the warrant listed narcotics as the target of the search.

29

Holding: We refuse to rule that an officer is required to disbelieve a judge who has just advised him, by word and by action, that the warrant he possess authorizes him to conduct the search he has requirements. Groh v. Ramirez (2004) description left blank Background: applied for a search warrant to search a ranch for illegal weapons but the warrant omitted the exact items sought (although he correctly listed the items on the application itself). Holding: such a warrant was so facially invalid that reliance on it could not be regarded as reasonable Reasoning: Failed to meet the Fourth Amendment requirement that a warrant particularly describe the persons or things to be seized. No reasonable officer could believe that a warrant that did not comply with that requirement was valid. 2. Warrantless searches Illinois v. Krull (1987) pursuant to a statute Background: officer conducted a warrantless search pursuant to a statute that was later declared unconstitutional. Holding: The approach used in Leon is equally applicable in the present case. The application of the exclusionary rule to suppress evidence obtained by an officer acting in objectively reasonable reliance on a statute would have as little deterrent effect on the officers actions as would the exclusion of evidence when an officer acts in objectively reasonable reliance on a warrant. Arizona v. Evans (1995) erroneous hit during traffic stop Background: during a routine traffic stop the patrol cars computer erroneously (through a court employees clerical error) alerted to an outstanding arrest warrant for the driver, who was placed under arrest and searched. Holding: The Court found no basis to believe that suppression would have a significant effect on court employees who were not engaged in law enforcement, and thus refused to apply the rule. Herring v. United States (2009) another police departments mistake Background: the police acted pursuant to information from another police department that there was an outstanding warrant. It turns out that the warrant had been recalled and the information was negligently given. Holding: The conduct of the police wasnt deliberate; the Court refused to apply the exclusionary rule to the negligent conduct because it would have little deterrent effect. 3. Does not apply in the following cases: Where the police misled (either deliberately or in reckless disregard of the truth) the magistrate in their application for the warrant. Where the warrant was so obviously invalid (either because probable cause is lacking or it fails to particularize the place to be

30

searched or the things to be seized) that no officer could reasonably rely on it. Where the magistrate abandoned his neutral and detached posture.

II. Fifth Amendment


No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation.

A. Introduction i) Elements
(a) Compulsion to (b) Testify in such a way that (c) In a criminal case (now or later) (d) The testimony could be used against her (a) Protects an innocent defendant that is bad at testifying but a jury will still think you are guilty if you dont testify (b) Jurors can believe innocent defendants because they know you dont have to testify 1. But people lie all the time and jurors know that there is no presumption of innocence; 2. If you can force someone to talk you can make sure that youve got the right person (c) Deters perjury (d) Unreliability of coerced statements but maybe it is reliable (e) Creates a fair balance between the individual and the state

ii) Justifications

iii)The Cruel Trilemma:


(a) Testify truthfully if guilty will incriminate himself and to prison (b) Testify falsely spiritual damnation and goes to prison for perjury (c) Refuse to testify goes to prison for contempt

B. Scope of the Privilege


Broad interpretation: Not only protects the individual against being involuntarily called as a witness against himself in a criminal prosecution but also privileges him not to answer official questions put to him in any other proceeding, civil or criminal, formal or informal, where his answers might incriminate him in future criminal proceedings. 94

i) Development of broad interpretation


94

Lefkowitz v. Turley (1973)

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(a) Boyd v. United States (1886) quasi-criminal95 1. Suits for forfeiture was quasi-criminal in nature 2. Subpoenaing of business records was equivalent to compelling a person to be a witness against himself (b) Counselman v. Hitchcock (1892) grand jury investigation 1. Issue of whether a grand jury witness could claim privilege 2. A grand jury investigation of a criminal matter was a criminal case, 3. Privilege is available in any proceeding, whenever the testimony sought from a party or witness might later be used in a criminal prosecution against that person (c) Note: these decisions are binding to the states as well as the federal government through the Fourteenth Amendment

ii) Rule:

(a) Privilege against compelled self-incrimination is available 1. Whenever the proceeding in which the testimony is sought can itself be characterized as a criminal case; and 2. Whenever the compelled testimony might be used against the witness in a later criminal proceeding (b) But the actual use of compelled testimony other than in a criminal case does not itself implicate the Fifth Amendment 1. For example: Probation revocation proceedings Where legislation defines a civil penalty96 Detention for treatment97 Foreign prosecution98 - unless it can be shown that the domestic government, in compelling incrimination testimony, is simply acting as a surrogate or stalking horse for another country (c) Also the Fifth Amendment does not protect against statements compelled during interrogation that are never admitted in a criminal cases99

C. Compulsion i) Use of contempt power


(a) Classic form of compulsion (b) Imposes substantial punishment on the witness who is exercising the right remain silent

95

Forfeiture proceeding, pursuant to a statute authorizing the government to appropriate any goods about which an owner had made false statements with intent to evade tax collection. The trial court had ordered appellants to produce an invoice under the authority of a statute providing that failure to comply with such an order was tantamount to a confession of guilt. 96 United States v. L.O. Ward (1980): A statute imposing a civil penalty upon persons discharging hazardous material into navigable waters was not quasi-criminal so as to invalidate a reporting requirement imposed upon polluters. The Court distinguished Boyd and several other forfeiture cases, suggesting that they involved penalties that had no correlation with the damages sustained by society or the costs of enforcing the law. In Boyd the forfeiture provision was listed along with fine and imprisonment as possible punishments for customs fraud. 97 Allen v. Illinois (1986): Held that proceedings under the Illinois Sexually Dangerous Persons Act were not criminal for selfincrimination purposes. First look to statutory construction; states decision to limit proceedings under the Act to persons charged with criminal acts did not turn a civil proceeding into a criminal one; presence of some safeguards doesnt turn it into a criminal case; institutionalizing is still for treatment; due process did not require recognition of the privilege, because the privilege would decrease, not increase, the reliability of the fact-finding. 98 United States v. Balsys (1998): Balsys asserted the Fifth Amendment privilege on the ground that his testimony could be used against him in a criminal prosecution in either Israel or Lithuania. 99 Chavez v. Martinez (2003): Martinez brought a 1983 action for violation of his Fifth Amendment rights. The interrogation session occurred while Martinez was in the hospital being treated for bullet wounds. Martinez made some inculpatory statements but Martinez was never charged with a crime, and the statements were never used against him in a criminal proceeding.

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(c) Presents the witness with a cruel trilemma

ii) State-imposed sanctions

(a) Custodial interrogations100 (b) Threat of substantial economic sanctions 1. But only where the statements could be used in a criminal prosecution101 2. Government may otherwise fire employees who refuse to answer questions concerning the performance of their duties so long as the answers could not be used against them in a criminal prosecution (c) Threat of disbarment102 (a) Benefit v. Penalty 1. Providing a benefit is not compulsion A defendant facing a particular sentence, with the option of obtaining a lower sentence if he or she waives privilege is not presented with the same negative sanction as presented in the penalty cases. 2. Penalty cases have all involved some kind of loss or reduction from the status quo, such as a loss of public employment or disbarment There is a problem with the status quo standard because so few people actually go to trial; the status quo could be argued as pleading out (b) Examples of benefits: 1. Reduction in sentence (saves plea bargaining) 2. Clemency hearings that required an interview and possibility of incrimination 3. Sexual rehabilitation program as an incentive for sex offenders parole103 (c) Status quo analysis 1. For example: Can invoke the Fifth during a bar investigation and wont be disbarred But if you invoke during the character fitness interview, you can be refused license because the license is a privilege 2. Pressure to testify v. Compulsion to testify volunteering/pressure is not the same as compulsion (a) Griffin Rule: The fact that a defendant does not take the stand cannot be used as against him adverse comment104

iii)Benefit-Penalty Distinction:

iv) Invocation of the privilege

100 101

Miranda v. Arizona (1966) Lefkowitz v. Turley (1973): Contracts were required to waive immunity or to testify concerning state contracts, existing contracts could be canceled and future contracts could be denied for five years. 102 Spevack v. Klein (1967): Forbids disbarment of a lawyer for invoking the privilege during a bar investigation, where any statements could be used against the lawyer in a subsequent criminal prosecution. 103 McKune v. Lile (2002): Courts must decide whether the consequences of an inmates choice to remain silent are closer to the physical torture against which the Constitution clearly protects or the de minimis harms against which it does not. In the prison context, the question is whether the response of prison administrators to correctional and rehabilitative necessities are so out of the ordinary that one could sensibly say they rise to the level of unconstitutional compulsion. 104 Griffin v. California (1965): The Court held that adverse comment to the jury, by either the judge or the prosecutor, on the defendants election not to testify constitutes punishment for the invocation of silence, which is tantamount to compulsion and therefore violates the Fifth Amendment.

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1. Distinguishable from Griffin v. California (1965) Lakeside v. Oregon (1978) dealt with the instruction to the jury against the defendants wishes105 United States v. Robinson (1988) dealt with the prosecutor pointing out in his closing argument that the defendant had the opportunity to testify106 (b) Adverse inferences 1. Sentencing: Mitchell v. United States(1999)107 Rule: A defendant can not be subject to an adverse inference upon invoking the right to remain silent at a sentence proceeding (because sentencing is still part of a criminal case) Only applies to the underlying facts of the crime that formed the basis of sentencing Sentencing judge can consider many factors other than the facts underlying the conviction. Can consider accepting of responsibility; lack of remorse 2. Civil cases: Baxter v. Palmigiano (1976) Rule: Inferences against parties to civil actions may be used when they refuse to testify in response to probative evidence offered against them Reasoning: In ordinary civil cases, the party confronted with the invocation of the privilege by the opposing sides has no capacity to avoid it, by offering immunity from prosecution. Accommodates the right not to be a witness against oneself while still permitting civil litigation to proceed The stakes are high in criminal cases 3. Non-parties Rule: Courts have held that the rules of evidence prevent calling a witness who will invoke his privilege on the stand Reasoning: When a witness invokes the privilege in response to a question, it is not really an admission of guilt or wrongdoing, and it may provide an invitation to baseless questions from inquiring counsel who knows that the answers will be an invocation of the privilege

v) Exculpatory No Doctrine108
(a) Definition: Simple denial of guilt should not come within the statute (b) Rationale: Simple denials of guilt to government investigators should not be criminalized because to do so would violate the spirit of the Fifth Amendment (c) Holding: Rejected the doctrine

105

The instruction was designed to dispel the compulsion that might otherwise exist due to the negative inferences that could be drawn from the defendants failure to testify. 106 The prosecutor was responding to defense counsels closing argument that the defendant had not been permitted to explain his side of the story. 107 Mitchell pled guilty to federal charges of conspiring to distribute five or more kilos of cocaine and distributing cocaine. But she reserved the right to contest at sentencing the drug quantity attributable to her under the conspiracy count. At the sentencing hearing, three codefendants testified against her which was enough to have her sentence enhanced. The sentencing court followed the testified to amount and noted specifically that Mitchells failure to testify at sentencing was a factor in persuading the court to rely on the codefendants testimony. 108 Brogan v. United States (1998): lied to government investigators during the course of a criminal investigation.

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(d) Reasoning: Proper invocation of the privilege against compulsory selfincrimination allows a witness to remain silent, but to swear falsely

D. To Whom Does the Privilege Belong i) Rule: The privilege against self-incrimination is personal, belonging only to the
person who is himself incriminated by his own testimony

ii) Who is a person

(a) Natural individuals 1. Not an attorney concerned that his testimony would incriminate his client109 (b) Sole proprietorship not considered an entity distinct from the individual110 1. Not a partnership111 2. Not a corporation even one owned and operated by a single individual112

E. What is Protected i) Rule: The privilege only protects a person when that person is being compelled
to be a witness against himself.

ii) Does not protect against all forms of compelled self-incrimination

(a) Non-testimonial evidence: Schmerber v. California (1966)113 1. Withdrawal of blood and use of the analysis in question in this case did not involve compulsion. Reasoning lower courts have consistently limited its protection to situations in which the State seeks to submerge those values by obtaining the evidence against an accused through the cruel, simple expedient o compelling it from his own mouth. 2. There is no protection against compulsion to submit: Fingerprinting Photographing Measurements To write or speak for identification To appear in court Police line-up: To stand, to assume a stance, to walk, or to make a particular gesture114 (b) Testimonial evidence and the cruel trilemma: Pennsylvania v. Muniz (1990)115

109 110

Fisher v. United States (1976) United States v. Doe (1984) 111 Bellis v. United States (1974): Three partner law firm with employees is an established institutional identity independent of its individual partners. 112 Braswell v. United States (1988): The Court has long recognized that for purposes of the Fifth Amendment, corporations and other collective entities are treated differently from individuals. 113 Drunk driver had been arrested a hospital while receiving treatment for injuries suffered in an accident involving the auto he was driving. At the direction of a police officer, a blood sample was withdrawn from his body by a physician at the hospital. The chemical analysis of this sample revealed a BAC that indicated intoxication, and the report of this analysis was admitted in evidence at the trial. 114 United States v. Wade (1967): The defendant was arrested for robbing a bank. He was forced to stand in a line-up with several other prisoners, each of whom wore strips of tape on their faces, as had the actual robber. In addition, each man was required to utter the words allegedly spoken by the robber.

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1. Assumption defendant had been custodially interrogated, without warnings 2. Issue in dispute whether the evidence compelled from Muniz (manner of speech and the content of his answers) was protected by the Fifth Amendment 3. Holding (1) evidence of the slurred nature of his speech was not testimonial under Schmerber and its progeny. Reasoning the slurred speech was held to be physical evidence, because its relevance was divorced from the content of the words themselves. 4. Holding (2) the answer to the sixth birthday question was testimonial and therefore the use of it as evidence trial was in error Reasoning The Fifth Amendment applies when facts about a persons physical condition are obtained through testimonial evidence.116 (c) Express or implied assertions of fact: Doe v. United States (1988) 1. Rule to be testimonial, the communication must be an express or implied assertion of fact that can be true or false: otherwise there is no risk of perjury, and no cruel trilemma is presented. 2. Holding a persons compelled signature on a bank consent form, directing the release of bank records assuming such records existed was not testimonial because there was no assertion of fact that the records did or did not exist. (d) Psychological evaluations: 1. Estelle v. Smith (1981) a defendant who is to be interviewed by a government psychiatrist who will testify at sentencing (in this case the death penalty was involved) has a right to be warned that what he says may be used against him in the sentencing proceeding. 2. Jones v. Dugger (11th Cir. 1988)117 the court distinguished Estelle as a case where the doctor based his conclusion on the details of the story that defendant told him, whereas the defendants testimony in Jones merely related demeanor evidence. (e) Drawing an adverse inference as to non-testimonial evidence: 1. Contempt, while compulsion, is permissible because the suspect has no constitutional right to refuse production of non-testimonial evidence 2. Adverse inferences can be drawn against the person who refuses to supply non-testimonial evidence118, 119
115

Muniz was pulled over for suspicion of drunk driving. After he failed sobriety tests, police officers place him under arrest and transported him to a booking center. There they asked Muniz the date of his sixth birthday. The officers did not Mirandize him and Muniz responded with slurred speech, stumbled over his answers, and said that he did not know the date of his sixth birthday. 116 For example, if police had compelled Schmerber to answer questions about the alcohol in his blood, his oral response (e.g., Im drunk) would be testimonial even though the fact proven would concern Schmerbers physical condition. 117 Jones was arrested for sexually assaulting two women. He was questioned by Detective Holsberry, without Miranda warnings. In response to these questions, he answered that he had finished 9th grade and could read and write; he first denied involvement in the crime, then he confessed. Sanity was the central issue at trial. Holsberry testified as to his observations of Jones at the time, but he did not testify to the content of the statements. Holsberry stated that Jones appeared to be ration and well-oriented at the time of questioning, and appeared to know the difference between right and wrong. 118 South Dakota v. Neville (1983): Neville was stopped for drunken driving and was asked to submit to a blood-alcohol test. He refused, saying he was too drunk to pass the test. The state courts suppressed evidence of the refusal on self-incrimination grounds and the Supreme Court reversed. 119 Schmerber authorized a state to force a person to take such a test; South Dakota, therefore, had the power to administer a test to a defendant without his consent; the state could agree to respect the defendants refusal to take the test; and in doing so the state could condition its agreement to refrain from doing what it lawfully could do by providing that defendants refusal would result in certain disadvantages being imposed upon him.

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iii)Documents existing before compulsion:

1. Fisher v. United States (1976)120 Holding privilege cannot be asserted to prevent the government from obtaining evidence from third parties Reasoning the incriminated person has not been compelled to do anything when the evidence is gathered from third parties The same rationale served as a basis for the holding in Andresen v. Maryland (1976) that the use at trial of the defendants business records, seized pursuant to a valid warrant, did not violate the Fifth Amendment Fisher and Andresen mean that the portion of Boyd holding that a person may rely on the privilege to resist a formal governmental demand for private papers in existence when the demand is made no longer will be followed. Fisher suggests that in some circumstances a person may properly refuse to respond to a subpoena: if the production itself is communicative and that communication could tend to incriminate the party producing the documents 2. United State v. Doe (1984) Applied Fisher and held that the owner of several sole proprietorships properly invoked his privilege against selfincrimination in response to grand jury subpoenas for business documents and records Reasoning: Privilege did not protect the content of records prepared voluntarily by Doe, because the government did not compel the owner to make incriminating records Privilege may be invoked when the act of producing documents involves testimonial self-incrimination 3. Incriminating acts of production When the compelled testimonial act of production could incriminate the person responding to the subpoena (existence, control, and authenticity), only then does the Fifth Amendment apply A simple admission of the mere existence of documents is rarely incriminating But if a corporation has a second set of books and records, that fact is incriminating independent of the content of the records But if a person had previously testified, under oath, that a document did not exist then producing the document would be incriminating While admission of authenticity is potentially incriminating, it is sometimes the case that the act of production is insufficient to authenticate the records However, the Fifth Amendment will not apply if existence, control and authenticity is a forgone conclusion United States v. Hubbell (2000)121

120

A subpoena served on a taxpayer requiring him to produce an accountants work papers in his possession without doubt involves substantial compulsion. 121 First prosecution was terminated with a plea bargain which involved the defendant promising to provide the Independent Counsel with full, complete, accurate, and truthful information about matters relating to the Whitewater investigation. A second prosecution resulted from the Independent Counsels attempt to determine whether respondent had violated that promise. He

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Problem very broad subpoena In re Grand Jury Subpoena (9th Cir. 2004) held that the broader, more general, and subjective the language of the subpoena, the more likely compliance with the subpoena would be testimonial. The compelled act of production of personal documents was incriminating, because it provided the government information about a trail of documentation of which it had not been aware. Not cured by a grant of use immunity 4. Braswell v. United States (1988)122 production of corporate documents A business entity itself cannot be compelled to produce incriminating evidence, except through individual agents of the entity Reasoning: The custodian of corporate or entity records holds those documents in a representative rather than a personal capacity Recognizing a privilege on the part of records custodians would have a detrimental impact on the governments efforts to prosecute white collar crime. Distinguished from Curcio v. United States (1957)123, stating that a corporate agent assumes the risk of producing documents as part of the job, but not the risk of being compelled to give incriminating oral testimony However, the corporations act of production may be used as evidence against the custodian. The jury cannot be told that the individual defendant produced the records as a corporate agent, but it can be told that the corporation produced the records.124 5. Grand Jury Subpoena (11th Cir. 1996) difference between a corporate agents compelled oral testimony and compelled document production The corporate agent claimed not to possess the subpoenaed documents and refused to testify as to their location. The court stated that this case was controlled by Curcio, because the government was demanding oral testimony as to the location of records, and the answer could have personally incriminated the defendant. 6. Baltimore City Dept. of Social Services v. Bouknight (1990)125 production of a child in response to a court order

produced the documents pursuant to a court order and this led the Counsel with information that led his second prosecution 122 Braswell formed two corporations in which he was the sole shareholder. A grand jury issued a subpoena to him in his capacity as agent to produce the books and records of the two companies. Braswell invoked his personal privilege against selfincrimination on the ground that the act of production might be incriminating. 123 Curcio was served with a subpoena to testify in his capacity as a secretary-treasurer of a local union. Curcio refused to answer any questions as to the whereabouts of the books and records of the union. The Curcio Court held that the collective entity rule did not require the giving of oral testimony by the custodian where that testimony could incriminate him personally. 124 Also, if the defendant held a prominent position within the corporation that produced the records, the jury may, just as it would have someone else produced the documents, reasonably infer that he had possession of the documents or knowledge of their contents. 125 Suspecting child abuse, the Dept. of Social Services obtained a court order removing a child from his mothers control. The Dept. obtained a further order declaring the child to be in need of assistance under Maryland law. The mother was held in contempt of the order for failing to produce the infant.

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Could not invoke privilege because Bouknight assumed custodial duties related to production and because production is required as part of a noncriminal regulatory regime Relied on the collective entity rule Reasoning by acccepted care of the child subject to the custodial orders conditions, Bouknight accepted the consequent obligations of production (b) Required records 1. Rule: Act of production will be unprotected by the Fifth Amendment if the government requires the documents to be kept for a legitimate administrative purpose that is not focuses solely on those inherently suspect of criminal activity126 The government may require records to be kept; it can punish those who do not keep the records; it can punish those who keep false records; and it can punish those who truthfully admit criminal activity in the compelled records. Reasoning the state has legitimate administrative functions that would be impaired by a strict application of the Fifth Amendment, because any citizen could simply refuse to comply with the recordkeeping requirement by claiming that keeping the records would tend to incriminate them. 2. Shapiro v. United States (1948) compelled production of defendants customary business records, which were required to be kept under the Emergency Price Control Act, did not implicate the Fifth Amendment 3. California v. Byers (1971) compelled reporting of an accident Statute at issue hit and run statute that requires someone to stop at the scene of an accident and leave their name and address. The California Supreme Court upheld the statute, but inserted a use restriction on the information provided because disclosure created substantial hazards of self-incrimination. Holding the statutory scheme was essentially regulatory and noncriminal; it was directed to the motoring public at large, rather than to a highly selective group inherently suspect of criminal activities; and self-reporting was indispensable to fulfillment of its purposes

F. Procedural Aspects of Self-Incrimination Claims i) Determining the risk of incrimination


(a) Test: 1. perfectly clear 2. from a careful consideration of all 3. that the witness is mistaken 4. and that the answers cannot incriminate (b) Hibel v. 6th Judicial District Court of compelled self-identification 1. Holding: disclosure of his name incrimination
126

the circumstances in the case possibly have such tendency127 to Nevada, Humboldt County (2004) presented no reasonable danger of

The Court overturned conviction for failing to register and to pay an occupational tax for engaging in the business of accepting wagers and for failing to register a sawed-off shotgun. 127 The threshold for tendency to incriminate is not high, and as a practical matter in most cases, it is self-executing.

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2. Reasoning: refusal to disclose his name was not based on any articulated real and appreciable fear that his name would be used to incriminate him, or that it would furnish a link in the chain of evidence needed to prosecute him 3. Dissent: the Nevada law imposes a narrow duty to speak upon a specific class of individuals those persons detained by a police officer under circumstances which reasonably indicate that the person has committed, is committing or is about to commit a crime. (c) Ohio v. Reiner (2001)128 denial of guilt 1. Holding reinstated the conviction; it found that the babysitter faced a risk of self-incrimination even though she denied wrongdoing, and therefore the grant of immunity was not unlawful 2. Reasoning truthful responses of an innocent witness, as well as those of a wrongdoer, may provide the government with incriminating evidence from the speakers own mouth129

ii) Immunity

(a) Use and derivative use immunity130 (federal immunity statute) 1. A person who receives immunity Has no right to refuse to testify and may be punished (e.g., by imprisonment for contempt) for so refusing, or for lying. Not subject to the cruel trilemma of punishment for truth, silence and falsity because there is no punishment for telling the truth when immunized 2. Kastigar v. United States (1972) Explained that Counselman v. Hitchcock (1892) did not require transactional immunity; what it required was use and derivative use or use-fruits immunity Reasoning: rational accommodation between the imperatives of the privilege and the legitimate demands of government to compel citizens to testify and that it leaves the witness and the prosecutorial authorities in substantially the same position as if the witness had claimed the Fifth Amendment privilege. 3. Proving that Immunized Testimony was not Used Wall of Silence between the prosecutors exposed to the testimony and the prosecutors who bring the case against the witness (b) Tainted witnesses 1. Prosecutors burden of showing no use by the witnesses of the immunized testimony could be met y canning the testimony beforehand, just as wise prosecutors meet their burden of showing independent investigation by canning the results of the investigation before the defendant gives immunized testimony.131

128

Reiner was charged with involuntary manslaughter in connection with the death of his infant son. He blamed it on the babysitter. The babysitter refused to testify, claiming a Fifth Amendment privilege. She was granted immunity, then testified as a prosecution witness that she had nothing to do with the infants death or with other injuries to the infants brother. Reiner was convicted but the state court reversed on the ground that the babysitter should not have been granted immunity. 129 Grunewald v. United States (1957) 130 As compared transactional immunity which is a broad guarantee against future prosecution that signifies that no transaction about which a witness testifies can be the subject of a future prosecution against the witness. 131 United States v. North (D.C. Cir. 1990): North had been granted immunity by Congress to testify about his role in the IranContra scandal. Many of the Independent Counsels witnesses had seen Norths testimony on their own. The court held that Kastinger is violated whenever the prosecution puts on a witness whose testimony is shaped, directly or indirectly, by compelled testimony, regardless of how or by whom he was exposed to that compelled testimony.

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2. Independent Source, Inevitable Discovery132 Kastinger is not violated where the affidavit upon which the wiretap authorization was based contained sufficient information to support a wiretap even without the immunized testimony 3. Impeachment, Perjury An immunized witness is coerced and cannot be used as evidence against the witness in a subsequent case against the witness, even for impeachment purposes An immunized witness has not right to lie, and that evidence of lying under a grant of immunity could be used in a subsequent prosecution for perjury, false statements, or obstruction of justice.133 4. Subsequent Statements a witness can claim privilege at a deposition in a civil case, even though he had previously been granted use immunity in related criminal proceedings Reasoning the prior grant of immunity was not sufficient protection to assure a defendant that nothing that he said at the deposition could be used against him in later criminal proceedings To protect both the witness and the government, the Court held that a new immunity grant would be required before the witness could be forced to answer (a) Determining the scope of a waiver 1. On direct, the witness ordinarily can control what she says but once the witness takes the stand he waives the privilege as to any subject matter within the scope of the direct 2. On cross, the witness is subject only to the extent necessary to fairly test the statements made upon direct and inferences that might be drawn from such statements (b) Waiver of the privilege at a guilty plea hearing Mitchell v. United States (1999) 1. Defendant did not waive privilege just by admitting to some of the proffered conduct did not pose a threat to the integrity of fact-finding proceedings 2. The purpose of the plea hearing was simply to ensure that petitioner understood the charges and that there was a factual basis for the governments case (c) Failure to Invoke the Privilege as a Waiver 1. If a person does answer the governments questions, privilege will be deemed waived and the answer can be used as evidence. 2. Minnesota v. Murphy (1984) the Court reiterated its view that generally a person who is asked to answer questions must invoke his privilege against self-incrimination or lose its protection G. Fifth Amendment Limitations of Confessions

iii)Waiver of the privilege

i) Escobedo v. Illinois (1964)134 Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel


132

United States v. Gallo (2d Cir. 1998): Gallos immunized grand jury testimony was used along with other information to obtain a wiretap on another persons phone. Conversations were intercepted that incriminated Gallo, and these were used against him at trial. 133 United States v. Apfelbaum (1980) 134 A suspect in a murder investigation who was interrogated at the police station despite repeated requests to consult his attorney, who was present at the station and attempting to see his client. The suspect made inculpatory statements which were admitted at trial.

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(a) Holding a suspect who has become the focus of an accusatory interrogation is entitled to the guiding hand of counsel during that process. (b) Only applies to situations where an investigation had already focused on the suspect, and where he requests counsel prior to interrogation. (c) Therefore, the Court began to shift to the Fifth Amendment, which is not temporally limited to criminal prosecutions ii) Miranda v. Arizona (1966) Fifth Amendment Right to Silence (a) The Supreme Court adopted a comprehensive scheme designed to limit the abuses of incommunicado interrogation and minimize its inherent coercion. (b) Relied on the Fifth Amendment privilege against compelled selfincrimination, Miranda mandated warnings prior to interrogation of a suspect held in custody: 1. Right to remain silent 2. Implications of not remaining silent that anything he says can be used against him in court 3. Right to have an attorney present during questioning 4. Right to have an attorney appointed at state expense if he cannot afford to retain one. (c) If police do obtain a statement, Miranda requires that that prosecutor meet a heavy burden to demonstrate that the defendant: 1. Knowingly and intelligently 2. Waived his privilege against self-incrimination 3. Waived his right to retained or appointed counsel (d) Innovation of the decision 1. Rigidity of the Miranda rules and the way in which they are to applied 2. Afforded police clear guidelines on the acceptable manner of questioning an accused 3. Allowed courts to avoid intractable factual determinations that the former totality of the circumstances approach (e) Problems: not as bright line an approach since there has been considerable litigation over the definition of the key elements of custody, interrogation, and waiver.

iii)Withrow v. Williams (1993) Miranda and Habeas Corpus Review

(a) Holding permits state prisoners to challenge their convictions on the ground that they rested on statements obtained in violation of Miranda (b) Reasoning distinguished Miranda violations from those involving search and seizure because the formed compromise the truth-seeking function of the trial (a) Congress purported to overrule Miranda in the Crime Control Act of 1968, which imposes the voluntariness standard135 as the exclusive method of weighing admissibility of confession in federal prosecutions. (b) 7-2 majority reaffirmed Miranda and its constitutional basis therefore Congress had no power to overrule Miranda 1. Noted the advantage of concrete constitutional guidelines for law enforcement and the courts to follow

iv) Dickerson v. United States (2000) Miranda v. Congress

135

Challenging a confession under the voluntariness standard requires a showing that (1) the police subjected the suspect to coercive conduct; (2) the conduct was sufficient to overcome the will of the suspect (given her particular vulnerabilities and the conditions of the interrogation, thus inducing an involuntary statement

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2. Miranda has become embedded in routine police practice to the point where the warnings have become part of the national culture. (c) But the Court has seemed to imply that it is a prophylactic rule because it has limited the reach of Miranda

v) Chavez v. Martinez (2003) Miranda v. Unused Statements

(a) Narrow view of Miranda: there is no violation unless the government seeks to introduce the statement at a criminal trial (b) Focuses on the not compelled to be a witness against himself in a criminal case (a) Use of Voluntary Statements for Impeachment 1. Harris v. New York (1971)136 not properly Mirandized Holding voluntary statements (even if not properly Mirandized) could be used to impeach the defendants testimony at trial Can prevent the statements form coming into evidence during the prosecutions case-in-chief Cannot prevent the prosecutor from confronting him with these admissions on cross-examination when he chose to testify In practice the judge will instruct the jury that they are to consider the prior statement only in weighing the credibility of defendants trial testimony, and not for the truth of the matters asserted Significance Miranda was not constitutional; it was prophylactic so it can be used to impeach the witness 2. Oregon v. Hass (1975)137 properly Mirandized Holding Hass was controlled by Harris, therefore the statements were admissible to impeach the defendant, who had taken the stand and offered direct testimony in conflict with the incriminating information with knowledge that the inculpatory statements had been ruled inadmissible as substantive evidence Despite the deliberate nature of the Miranda violation 3. Result of Harris and Hass for the defendant after a defective Miranda: May not want to take the stand, because if he does the jury may learn about the confession Even though juries will be told that the confession can be used for impeachment purposes only But the Court has recognized that juries are likely to be swayed by confessions and to use them improperly, contrary to instructions If he does take the stand, the chance of conviction increases appreciably

vi) Exceptions to the Miranda Rule of Exclusion

(b) Use of Involuntary Statements for Impeachment Mincey v. Arizona (1978)


136 137

Harris made incriminating statements at the time of his arrest for the sale of heroin, but had not received complete warnings. Hass was given his full Miranda warnings and had said that he would like to call a lawyer. He was told that he could not telephone an attorney until he and the police officer reached the police station. Thereafter, the defendant made inculpatory statements before he was given an opportunity to call a lawyer.

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1. Distinguished Harris and Hass if a confession is involuntary, as opposed to merely Miranda-defective, it cannot be admitted even for impeachment purposes. 2. Importance: Due Process Clause operates to prohibit the use of involuntary confessions for any purposes; it is a constitutional right. 3. Note: Defense may want to make both arguments. If you win on the due process clause, then the scope of the exclusion is more robust the prosecution wont even be able to use it to impeach (c) Use of Prior Silence for Impeachment: 1. Post-arrest silence + post-Miranda silence Doyle v. Ohio (1976)138 Evidentiary rules: a defendant can be impeached with prior silence if a reasonable person would have spoken at the time about the matter later testified to. But: when Miranda warnings explicitly say you have a right to remain silent; anything you say cannot be used against. There is an implicit contract/promise to not have silence used against you.
139

Holding: after Miranda warnings are given, the Due Process Clause prohibits the government from using the defendants silence against him. 2. Pre-arrest silence Jenkins v. Anderson (1980)140 Holding: where the failure to speak occurs before the person is arrested, impeachment by use of that post-arrest silence does not violate the due process clause of the 14th amendment Reasoning: Doyle is inapplicable because no governmental action induced Jenkins to remain silent before arrest. The fundamental unfairness present in Doyle is not present in this case. 3. Post-arrest + pre-Miranda silence Fletcher v. Weir (1982)141 Holding: impeachment with post-arrest silence is constitutionally permissible Reasoning: an arrest by itself does not implicitly induce a suspect to remain silent and there are no affirmative assurances in the Miranda warnings (d) Suppression of the Fruits of a Statement in Violation of Miranda 1. Background: Possible fruits of a Miranda-defective confession are Investigative leads pursued as a result of the confession Physical evidence Second confession by the suspect Pre Dickerson v. United States the Court severely limited the exclusionary impact of Miranda on the fruits of confessions because
138

Arrestee remained silent after receiving Miranda warnings. When Doyle later testified at his trial on narcotics offenses that he had been framed by a police informant, the prosecution elicited (over objection) on cross-examination that he had not protested his innocence at the time of arrest. 139 While it is true that the Miranda warnings contain no express assurance that silence will carry no penalty, such assurance is implicit to any person who receives the warnings. It would be fundamentally unfair and a deprivation of due process because the warnings advise the suspect that he has the right to remain silent, his silence may simply represent an exercise of those rights and should not carry a penalty. 140 Jenkins stabbed and killed Redding, and at his trial for murder he contended that the killing was in self-defense. Jenkins was not apprehended until he turned himself in two weeks after the killing. On cross-examination and in closing argument, the prosecutor emphasized that Jenkins two-week waiting period was inconsistent with someone who is claiming self-defense. 141 Weir testified at trial that he acted in self-defense, and the prosecutor asked why he did not offer this explanation when he was arrested.

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Exclusion of the fruit of a poisonous tree is only justified if a constitutional right is violated A violation of Miranda is not by itself a violation of the Fifth Amendment Post Dickerson v. United States, this analysis is no longer followed because the Court specifically held that the fruits exception to Miranda retained validity even though the Miranda safeguards are constitutionally based. 2. Leads to witnesses Michigan v. Tucker (1974)142 Failure to give the full Miranda warnings required exclusion of the defendants confession but not of the witnesss testimony (the fruit of the confession). But, if the confession is involuntary (coerced) under due process, then not only will the statement be excluded but all the fruit will be excluded as well because the fruits doctrine applies to due process violations 3. Leads to a second confession Oregon v. Elstad (1985)143 Defective Miranda: result of a spontaneous and uncoordinated interrogation The first (Miranda defective) statement was excluded from evidence, but the second statement (even though it derives from the fruit of the first) was admissible Reasoning: Miranda remedy sweeps more broadly than the Fifth Amendment protection against compelled selfincrimination Miranda represents a prophylactic rule and not a constitutional right Missouri v. Seibert (2004) Defective Miranda: police deliberately fail to provide Miranda warnings as part of a question-first strategy designed to elicit and incriminating statement from an unknowing suspect, and only then provide him with the warnings before they obtain a second statement repeating the confession Distinguishable from Elstad and therefore the second statement must be suppressed. Reasoning: the delayed warnings coming after the cat is out of the bag are an affront to Mirandas core purpose of avoiding the risk of a coerced confession144
142

Tucker was arrested for rape. Before he was interrogated he was advised of his right to remain silent and his right to counsel, but was not told that he had the right to appointed counsel if he was indigent. Tucker told the police that he was with his friend Henderson at the time the crime was committed. The police then went to talk to Henderson. But Henderson gave information tending to incriminate Tucker. Before the trial, the Tucker moved to exclude Hendersons expected testimony because the defendants Miranda-defective statement had led them to Henderson. 143 Police obtained an oral admission from an 18-year old burglary suspect while he was in custody at home and without advising him of his rights. One hour later at the station house Elstad received Miranda warnings, indicated he understood them, and made a detailed statement describing his involvement in the crime. Elstad argued that the second statement, although obtained in compliance with Miranda, was the tainted fruit of the first statement, which was not in compliance. 144 Upon hearing warnings only in the aftermath of interrogation and just after making a confession, a suspect would hardly think he had a genuine right to remain silent, let alone persist in so believing once the police began to lead him over the same ground again.Thus, when Miranda warnings are inserted in the midst of coordinated and continuing interrogation, they are likely to mislead and deprive a defendant of knowledge essential to his ability to understand the nature of his rights and the consequences of abandoning them.

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Kennedys concurrence: look to whether the Miranda was given in good (Elstad) or bad faith (in this case); this is the opinion that all the five justices agreed but dont lose sight of the pluralitys opinion 4. Leads to physical evidence United States v. Patane (2004)145 Even after Dickerson, the exclusionary rule does not bar the physical fruits of a Miranda-defective confession Reasoning: Relied on Chavez v. Martinez Miranda is not a code of police conduct, but merely protects use of a self-incriminatory statement at criminal trial Non-testimonial physical evidence does not implicate that protection (e) Public Safety Exception New York v. Quarles (1984)146 1. Holding: under the circumstances involved in this case (armed rapist on the loose), overriding considerations of public safety justify the officers failure to provide Miranda warnings before he asked questions devoted to locating the abandoned weapon. 2. Reasoning: Cost/benefit analysis (commonly used to cut back on Warren Court precedent) The need for answers to questions in a situation posing a significant threat to public safety outweighs the need for the prophylactic rule protecting the Fifth Amendments privilege against self-incrimination Does not apply to an involuntary or coerced statement 3. Take away: Where the police officers questions are reasonably prompted by a concern for safety, he may engage in noncoercive questioning without complying with Mirandas dictates Applicability of the exception does not depend upon the actual motivation of the police, but rather on the objective facts of the case Immediate public danger (but that may not even be true in light of Patane) 4. Dissent: Unnecessarily blurs the edges of the clear line established by Miranda and its requirements more difficult to understand Miranda never prohibited police from asking questions to protect the public or themselves147; it simply required that in the absence of warnings, the answers to those questions could not be used as evidence at trial. 5. Note: This is still good law post-Dickerson as indicated in United States v. Patane

145

Suspect was arrested for violation of a restraining order and questioned without being given full Miranda warnings. He revealed the location of an illegal gun, and was charged with a firearms offense. The lower courts suppressed the gun as fruit of a Miranda violation, but the Supreme Court disagreed. 146 Incriminating statement was obtained when police pursued a rape suspect believed armed with a gun into a supermarket and captured him. Upon frisking him and finding an empty shoulder holster, the officer questioned him about the location of the missing gun. No warnings were given. Quarles responded: The gun is over there. Both the statement and the gun were suppressed at trial. 147 Indeed, the New York Court of Appeals had concluded that the missing gun did not pose an imminent threat to public safety because the suspect had been overpowered by police, no accomplices were thought to be nearby, and the supermarket was empty.

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(f) What is left of Miranda? 1. A statement obtained in violation of Miranda (warnings, waiver, right to counsel) may not be admitted against the suspect at trial; except 2. When the statement was voluntary, and either: The interrogation falls within the Quarles public safety exception; or The response is used solely to impeach defendants testimony at trial, and not as substantive evidence of guilt during DAs case in chief 3. Where a Miranda-violation statement does not fall within either of the above, it cannot itself be used at all at trial. Evidence derived from the statement (either physical or testimonial) will be admissible as long as the statement was not coerced

vii)

Components of Miranda

Miranda requires the warnings and other protective measures whenever there is questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way. Covers both felonies and misdemeanors Berkemer v. McCarty (1984) (a) Custody = Under Arrest 1. Threshold question: whether there is either a formal arrest or restraint on freedom of movement of the degree associated with a formal arrest 2. Venue: The venue in which the interrogation occurs is not determinative, and one need not be in a police station to be in custody Miranda warnings are not required where the suspect comes to the station voluntarily (accompanied by the police or not), was informed that he was not under arrest, and had not been restricted in his freedom to depart Where there is no formal arrest, the determinative question is whether a reasonable person (see below), given the totality of the circumstances, have felt at liberty to terminate the interrogation and leave. Warnings are not required in routine encounters between motorists and police.148 Orozco v. Texas (1969) held that the defendant was in custody when four armed policemen entered his bedroom at 4am and tried to elicit incriminating information from him. One of the officers testified that he said that the defendant was under arrest and not free to leave his bedroom Beckwith v. United States (1976) held that the defendant was not in custody for purposes of receiving Miranda warnings where two IRS agents arrived at his house at 8pm, were invited in, and
148

Berkemer v. McCarty (1984): Terry stops are not custodial for Miranda purposes. Terry stops are typically of brief duration; questioning is limited, because the officer can ask only a moderate number of questions to determine identity and to try to obtain information confirming or dispelling the officers suspicion; the detainee is not obliged to respond; and unless probable cause arises in a short, the detainee must be released. Terry stops are comparatively nonthreatening and hence unlike custodial situations required to trigger Miranda.

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sat with the defendant at his dining room table to discuss their investigation of his federal income tax returns. If not in custody, the inherently coercive atmosphere that triggers the need for Miranda warnings is not present. Oregon v. Mathiason (1977) held that an individual questioned at a police station voluntarily is not necessarily in custody. Mathiason voluntarily arrived at the station, was informed that he was not under arrest, and left the station without hindrance after he confessed. California v. Behler (1983) extended Mathiason to find that the suspect was not in custody when he agreed to accompany police officers down to the station for questioning. He was told that he was not under arrest and was released after confessing. Minnesota v. Murphy (1984) held that the privilege against selfincrimination was not violated when a probation officer called Murphy to her office and questioned him about the rape and murder of a teenage girl he had previously admitted to it to a counselor. 3. Objective test: Stansbury v. California (1994)149 It is well settled that a police officers subjective view that the individual under questioning is a suspect, if undisclosed, does not bear upon the question whether the individual is in custody for purpose of Miranda An officers view only bears if they were somehow manifested to the individual under interrogation and would have affected how a reasonable person in that position would perceive his or her freedom to leave 4. Personal characteristics are irrelevant: Yarborough v. Alvarado (2004)150 Held that a suspects youth was irrelevant in determining whether he is in custody Relied on Stansbury for the proposition that custody under Miranda is determined by an objective test. If youth and experience in particular were relevant, the police would have difficulty in determining when Miranda applies. 5. Prisoners in custody: Mathis v. United States (1968)151 Although the defendant was in jail for reasons unrelated to the tax investigation, he was still in custody, and the failure to give him his Miranda warnings was unconstitutional Note: subsequent cases have refused to read Mathis as a per se rule that prisoners are always in custody for Miranda purposes

149

An officer interrogated Stansbury about a murder, thinking that Stansbury was a potential witness. When the questioning began, the officer believed that another man was the prime suspect. But after Stansbury gave incriminating information in response to a few questions, it became clear to the officer that the defendant was the perpetrator. At that point, the officer gave Stansbury Miranda warnings. There was no indication that the officers initial lack of suspicion had been imparted to Stansbury. The issue was whether the initial statements had been obtained in violation of Miranda. The lower court held that Stansbury was not in custody until the officers suspicions shifted to him as a result of the initial questioning. The Supreme Court reversed. 150 Police notified Alvarados parents that they wished to speak with him on anything he knew about a robbery and murder. Alvarados parents brought him to the station. They waited in the lobby while Alvarado was questioned without Miranda warnings. Alvarado confessed after about two hours of interrogation. Alvarado argued that he was in custody in large part because of his youth and inexperience in the criminal justice system. 151 Defendant was interrogated while in jail by IRS agents about his alleged tax evasion

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The question is viewed as whether prison officials conduct would cause a reasonable person to believe his freedom of movement had been further diminished. For example in Garcia v. Singletary (11th Cir. 1994), an inmate set fire to his cell. When taken out of his cell and questioned by a guard as to why he did it, the inmate incriminated himself. The court held that Miranda did not apply.152 6. Factors to look at:153 Whether the suspect was informed at the time of questioning that he questioning was voluntary, that the suspected was free to leave or requires the officers to do so, or that the suspect was not considered under arrest Whether the suspect possessed unrestrained freedom of movement during questioning Whether the suspect initiated contact with authorities or voluntarily acquiesced to official request to respond to questions Whether strong arm tactics or deceptive stratagems were employed during questioning Whether the atmosphere of the questioning was police dominated Whether the suspect was placed under arrest at the termination of the questioning (b) Interrogation 1. What is interrogation? Encompasses conduct Deliberately designed to evoke a confession; and The officers should reasonably have foreseen would elicit such a response Foreseeability of response Particular susceptibilities of the suspect Knowledge the officers had of these at the time Rhode Island v. Innis (1980) expanded the concept of interrogation to include police conduct that, while not formal questioning, is its functional equivalent. Broader definition: any words or actions on the part of the police (other than those normally attendant to arrest and custody) that the police should know are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response from the suspect Narrow application: no interrogation was found where two officers transporting the suspect (who had requested counsel) to the police station in a cruiser engaged in a conversation about a missing shotgun believed to have been used by him in a recent robbery-murder.154 Test: words or actions by the police that could reasonably be likely to elicit an incriminating response (subjective intentions of the police are irrelevant
152

Because Garcia was the only person in the cell during the fire and failing to remove him would have endangered his safety, the guards action added no further restraint on Garcias freedom to depart. In fact, removing Garcia from his cell provided him with greater freedom of movement and significantly reduced those preexisting restrictions. 153 United States v. Brown (8th Cir. 1993) 154 The Court concluded that the officers could not reasonably have expected their conversation to elicit an incriminating statement. The Court found nothing in the record to suggest that they were aware Innis was peculiarly susceptible to an appeal to conscience concerning the safety of handicapped children.

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Edwards v. Arizona (1981) the Court found that Edwards had been interrogated when officers played for him a recorded statement of Edwards associate that implicated Edwards in the crime. United States v. Bin Laden (S.D. N.Y. 2001) where the defendant is interrogated by American law enforcement abroad to be tried in criminal court (distinguished from enemy combatants), Miranda still applies 2. When is it not an interrogation? Examples: Statements volunteered with no such questioning Police are not required to interrupt a person who is about to blurt out a confession and inform him of his right to silence and an attorney Limited follow up questions to clarify a volunteered statement (Who did you kill? as a follow up to I killed him) Officers indirect statements (not at the suspect) because they are less likely to produce incriminating responses Arizona v. Mauro (1987)155 dealt with the perception of the suspect that he is being subjected to psychological pressures Perception of the suspect the Court doubted that a suspect allowed to speak with his spouse would feel he was being coerced to incriminate himself Police conduct the Court held that the suspect was not subjected to compelling influences or psychological ploys and the Court found the permission to talk with his wife reasonable under the circumstances Questions attendant to custody Booking questions Pennsylvania v. Muniz (1990)156: admitted as evidence of drunkenness, even though in response to custodial interrogation, because they fell within a routine booking question exception which exempts from Mirandas coverage questions to secure the biographical data necessary to complete booking or pretrial services. Note: would not apply if such questions were designed to elicit incriminatory admissions Scope of determining the booking questions exception (objective) i. Whether there could be a proper administrative purpose for the question ii. Whether the question is asked by an officer who routinely books suspects iii. Whether the officer would need to know the information for booking purposes Custodial procedures and tests probably not considered interrogation even though the defendant may make incriminating statements during the explanation process
155

Police permitted Mauro and his wife (at her request) to talk together in the police station where he was being held. Both were suspects in the murder of their child. The conversation occurred in the presence of an officer and a tape recorder, and resulted in incriminating statements that Mauro sought to suppress. 156 Stopped for suspicion of drunk driving; brought to a booking center and asked identifying questions which he stumbled over and gave incorrect responses to.

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because such explanations cannot be considered to call for an incriminating response Undercover activity Illinois v. Perkins (1990) Agent posed as a fellow prisoner and placed in suspects cell in order to elicit an incriminating statement; the ploy worked The Court held that Miranda protections did not apply because the suspect did not perceive that he was being questioned and thus did not feel coercive pressures that trigger the protections (c) Substance and adequacy of the warnings 1. The Miranda Court in 1966 indicated some flexibility when it explained it was not establishing a constitutional straightjacket and suggested that there might be potential alternatives or fully effective equivalents to its chosen prophylactic measures. 2. California v. Prysock (1981) issue of deviation from the original warnings Background: state appellate court reversed the juvenile defendants murder conviction because the police officer did not explicitly advise him that he was entitled to the services of a free lawyer prior to questioning, and made some additional comments that arguably could have been interpreted as meaning that such a lawyer would not be available until the defendant appeared in court Holding: No talismanic incantation of precise language is necessary to satisfy Miranda. What is required is that police reasonably convey to the suspect his rights to remain silent and to counsel But if the reference to the right to counsel is linked to some future point in time after the interrogation, the Miranda dictates are not satisfied 3. Duckworth v. Eagen (1989) issue with the pragmatic reality that police were not able to immediately provide a lawyer to advise suspects taken into custody at all times of the day and night; modified the warnings form to if an when you got to court The Court held that the warnings conveyed the substance of the right required by Miranda Reasoning: Miranda does not require each police station to have a station house lawyer present at all times to advise suspects; it requires simply that the suspect be advised of his right to counsel and that he cannot be questioned unless and until he validly waives that right 4. United States v. Connell (9th Cir. 1989) insufficient Miranda Warnings received: Oral warning: you must make your own arrangements to obtain a lawyer, and this will be at no expense to the Government, and that if you cannot afford to pay for a lawyer, one may be appointed to represent you Written warning: arrangements will be made for you to obtain one in accordance with the law. Holding: these warnings together were insufficient and Connells confession should have been excluded

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Reasoning: the oral warning was misleading because it appeared that the right to appointed counsel was subject to government discretion. It found the written warning to be ambiguous because Connell is not expected to know what the requirements of the law are. In fact, conveying to the person in custody the requirements of the law is the whole purpose of the warning.

H. Wavier of Miranda Rights157 i) Waiver and the Role of Counsel


(a) The Miranda Court stated the accused may waive the rights to silence and counsel, but only if, under all the circumstances, the rights are waived voluntarily, knowingly, and intelligently. 1. Smith v. Duckworth (7th Cir. 1998) the question of the voluntariness of waiver of Miranda rights is separate and differs from the determination of the voluntariness of a confession. Once it is clear that a defendant has made a knowing and voluntary waiver of his or her Miranda rights, the issue then becomes whether the confession itself was voluntary. A confession may be suppressed because, although the suspect freely signed a Miranda waiver form, he was subsequently coerced into confessing An express statement that the individual is willing to make a statement and does not want an attorney followed closely by a statement could constitute a waiver. But a valid waiver will not be presumed simply from silence of the accused after warnings are given or simply from the fact that a confession was obtained. 2. North Carolina v. Butler (1979) showed the Courts openness to implied waivers A waiver may be found even in the absence of an explicit statement if the suspects words and actions implicitly constitute a decision to forgo his rights.158 Defendants silence, coupled with an understanding of his rights and a course of conduct indicating waiver may be sufficient Totality-of-the-circumstances the Court directed trial judges to look at the particular facts and circumstances surrounding the case, including the background, experience, and conduct of the accused. (b) Knowing and Intelligent 1. It must be shown that: The suspect understood that he had the right not to talk to the police or to talk only with counsel present That he appreciated the consequences of foregoing these rights and speaking to the police 2. The prosecution may not rely on the any presumption that the warnings were understood by the suspect, but rather must affirmatively
157

While Miranda sought to eliminate the ad hoc approach of the due process voluntariness analysis and substitute bright-line standards, that goal has not been fully achieved. First, the doctrine of waiver evolved into its own totality-of-the-circumstances approach. Second, the due process challenge to an involuntary confession survives Miranda as an independent avenue of attack.. 158 In United States v. Frankson (4th Cir. 1996) the court held that a defendants subsequent willingness to answer questions after acknowledging his Miranda rights is sufficient to constitute an implied waiver. Even though the defendant never formally waived his Miranda rights, such cooperation, when coupled with his acknowledgment of his Miranda rights, constituted a valid waiver.

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demonstrate such understanding by showing, for example, that he answered affirmatively when asked by the officer whether he understood the rights just read to him.159 3. The Court has taken a narrow view of what must be disclosed to the suspect prior to a knowing and intelligent waiver: In Moran v. Burbine (1986), the Court held that the police did not have to tell the suspect that an attorney was trying to see him at the police station nor did this undercut the validity of a written waiver.160 It is the suspect who has the right to counsel under Miranda and that right does not come into effect until the suspect invokes the right. Because the defendant never asked for counsel in Burbine, counsel had no independent rights to assert. His presence at the police station was irrelevant. The fact that the police acted deliberately to deprive the suspect of information concerning counsels attempt to reach him did not affect the validity of the waiver. Note: The Court left open the possibility that on facts more egregious than those presented here police deception might rise to the level of a due process violation. In Connecticut v. Barrett (1987) the defendant refused to make a written statement but would talk to the police instead. The Court held that the police could properly take the opportunity opened by the defendants ambiguous actions to obtain an oral confession.161 The court in Bruni v. Lewis (9th Cir. 1988) relied on Barrett to uphold a waiver when the defendant told the police to ask your questions and I will answer those I see fit. The court in United States v. Soliz (9th Cir. 1997) did not find a waiver and excluded admissions concerning smuggling after a defendant was arrested on suspicion of an immigration violation and smuggling. He agreed to talking about his citizenship, but when they turned the questioning to smuggling, he said I though this was just about my citizenship. In Colorado v. Spring (1987), the Court established that a suspect need not be aware in advance of all the possible subjects of the interrogation in order to make a valid Miranda waiver.162 (c) Voluntary - Colorado v. Connelly (1986)

159

Tague v. Louisiana (1980), the Court held that a waiver of Miranda rights was not proven by an officers testimony that he read a suspect his rights from a card and the suspect then confessed. The officer could not remember whether he asked the suspect if he understood them or whether he made an effort to determine if the suspect was literate or otherwise capable of understanding his rights. Thus, a valid waiver could not be found simply by the fact that the warnings are given and the suspect confesses. 160 Events occurring outside of the presence of the suspect and entirely unknown to him surely can have no bearing on the capacity to comprehend and knowingly relinquish a constitutional right. We have never read the Constitution to require that police supply a suspect with a flow of information to help him calibrate his self interest in deciding whether to speak or stand by his rights. 161 The fact that some might find the defendants decision illogical is irrelevant, for we have never embraced the theory that a defendants ignorance of the full consequences of his decisions vitiates their voluntariness. 162 The defendant was arrested by federal agents on firearms charge and signed a written waiver form after being advised of his rights. The focus of the interrogation ultimately changed, however, to an unsolved homicide in Colorado, to which Spring then confessed. The Court held that the information withheld by the police might go to the wisdom of the waiver but not to its essentially voluntary and knowing nature.

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1. The Court equated this with the due process standards The sole concern of the Fifth Amendment is governmental coercion. Not concerned with moral and psychological pressures to confess emanating from sources other than official coercion Voluntariness of a waiver depends on the absence of police overreaching, not on free choice in any broader sense of the word. Otherwise, the waiver will be found voluntary regardless of the defendants peculiar vulnerabilities or internal compulsions to talk (such as Connellys psychosis in which the voice of God told him to confess) 2. Proving a waiver is involuntary requires that it resulted: From police coercion that overcame the suspects will. If the suspect was subjected to compulsion (intimidation or threats) then the impact of those tactics will be examined in light of the totality of the circumstances surrounding the interrogation (including the suspects age, mental state, experience and intelligence) Note: In recent years, deceptive activity (threatened, tricked, cajoling) by the police has been significantly discounted and is treated by the courts as only one factor among the totality of circumstances determining validity of a waiver.

ii) Waiver After Invocation of Miranda Rights


The Miranda Court mandated that if the individual indicates in any manner, at any time prior to or during questioning, that he wishes to remain silent, the interrogation must cease. Subsequent decisions have read this right to terminate questioning more narrowly. (a) Invocation of the Right to Silence: Michigan v. Mosley (1975)163 1. The Court rejected the concept a permanent termination and held instead that interrogation could resume as long as the right to cut off questioning was scrupulously honored.164 In Davis v. United States (1994), the Court held that police questioning a suspect can continue the interrogation when the suspect has made an ambiguous or equivocal invocation of the Miranda right to counsel. The Court said that police are not obligated to clarify the suspects intent; rather, they could assume in the absence of a clear invocation, the suspect was consenting to continued interrogation.
163

The defendant was arrested in connection with certain robberies, given Miranda warnings, and told that he could remain silent. Mosley said that he did not want to discuss the robberies, and the detective refrained from questioning him further. Approximately two hours later Miranda warnings were given again, and a different detective question Mosley about a murder that was not related to the robberies. Mosley signed a waiver form, and made an incriminating statement, which was admitted at his murder trial, in which he was convicted. 164 Note: Moselys requirement of scrupulous honor applies only if the defendants invocation of the right to silence occurs in the context of custodial interrogation. For example, the court in United States v. Kelly (8th Cir. 2003), the defendant argued that his confession had to be excluded under Mosely because he had previously invoked his right to silence when spoke to police officer in an initial interview, and then confessed when the officers interrogated him later. The court noted that the defendant was not in custody during the initial interview and had no Miranda rights to invoke. The court concluded that Kellys termination of the voluntary encounter posed no independent barrier to later questioning.

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2. If the prosecution seeks to introduce a statement obtained from a suspect who had initially invoked, it must be demonstrated: That his right to silence, once invoked, had been scrupulously honored; and That a knowing, intelligent, and voluntary waiver subsequently occurred Where it is shown that the police failed to cease interrogation immediately, or Engaged in repeated efforts to get the suspect to change his mind, his resulting statement will be inadmissible. The Miranda Court held that if (upon being administered the warnings) the suspect indicates he wants the assistance of counsel, then interrogation must cease until an attorney is present. This prohibition against the resumption of questioning until counsel arrives is premised on the view that invocation of the right to counsel shows the suspect is unwilling to decide on his own whether to submit to interrogation. Subsequent decisions have modified this rule. (b) Invocation of the Right to Counsel: Edwards v. Arizona (1981)165 1. Permits police to resume interrogation even in the absence of counsel if the suspect himself initiates further communication with the police. 2. The Court concluded that the playing of the tape (accomplices statement) constituted the functional equivalent of questioning under Rhode Island v. Innis, the Court ruled that Edwards statement was inadmissible.166 3. If the prosecution seeks to introduce a statement from a suspect who had initially invoked his rights to counsel, it must be demonstrated that: Counsel was made available to him; or Providing the opportunity to consult with counsel outside the interrogation room is not sufficient. The accused is entitled to have his attorney present with him during questioning.167 Lower courts have held that Edwards protections will not apply if, after invoking the right to counsel, the suspect is released from custody. The suspect himself initiated the further communication; and A knowing, intelligent, and voluntary waiver subsequently occurred 4. What constitutes invocation of the right to counsel?
165

The questioning of Edwards (who had initially waived his rights) was terminated when he asserted his right to counsel. He was taken to a jail cell where, the following morning, two other detectives sought to talk to him, but he refused. A guard then told Edwards the he had to talk with the detectives and took him to meet them. The detectives informed Edwards of his rights and then played a taped statement of an alleged accomplice who implicated him in the crime. He then indicated a willingness to talk and later made an incriminating statement. 166 Relationship between Edwards and Innis: Edwards holds that a suspect cannot waive the right to counsel after invoking it, unless he initiates the conversation. But if police-renewed contact does not rise to the level of custodial interrogation, Miranda itself is inapplicable to a resulting confession, and therefore so is Edwards. This is shown by the facts of Innis. Innis invoked his right to counsel, but the Court found it unnecessary to reach the question of waiver, because the offices never interrogated him. They had contact with him but they did not interrogate him. So if the suspect invokes his right to counsel, what Edwards holds is that police may not interrogate him while in custody unless the suspect initiates the conversation and then knowingly and voluntarily waives his Miranda rights. 167 Minnick v. Mississippi (1990) The need for counsel to protect the Fifth Amendment privilege comprehends not merely a right to consult with counsel prior to questioning, but also to have counsel present during any questioning if the defendant so desires.

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Id like to speak to a lawyer before answering questions Yes Uh, yeah. Id like to do that Smith v. Illinois (1984) Yes The Court found that with the possible exception of the word uh the defendants statement in this case was neither indecisive nor ambiguous. The Court concluded that where nothing about the request for counsel or the circumstances leading up to the request would render it ambiguous, all questioning must cease. Seems to set a liberal tone erring on the side of treating such statements as invocations, and cautioned against using the suspects subsequently expressed doubts to undercut his initial request for counsel. Maybe I should talk to a lawyer Davis v. United States (1994) No The Court held that a suspect must clearly and unequivocally invoke the right to counsel in order to trigger the protections of Edwards. Police are not obligated (although it is good police practice) to clarify ambiguous requests but may press on with their interrogation. 5. What constitutes initiation of further communications by the suspect? Ive changed my mind and want to talk about the crime now without a lawyer Yes Well, what is going to happen to me now? Oregon v. Bradshaw (1983)168 The Court (plurality) held that Miranda/Edwards doctrine had not been violated. Questions related to routine incidents of custodial relationship would generally not constitute initiation They found that Bradshaws question to the jailer evinced a willingness and desire for generalized discussion about the investigation permitted interrogation to resume. Unrelated crimes Arizona v. Roberson (1988) 169 Invocation of the right to counsel under Edwards is not offense-specific. Such an invocation prevents police-initiated interrogation on any crime. The Court concluded that to a suspect who has indicated his inability to cope with the pressures of custodial interrogation by requesting counsel, any further interrogation without counsel having been provided will surely exacerbate whatever compulsion to speak the suspect may be feeling. Further, whether a contemplated re-interrogation concerns the same or a different offense, or whether the same or different law enforcement authorities are involved in the
168

The officer responded: You do not have to talk to me. You have requested an attorney and I dont want you talking to me unless you so desire because anything you say because since you have requested an attorney, you know, it has to be your free will. Bradshaw replied that he understood. The two then conversed about where he would be taken and what he would be charged with, and the officer then suggested that he take a lie detector test, which he agreed to. The next day, following new warnings, Bradshaw took the test and subsequently made incriminating statements. 169 Defendant was arrested for burglary and exercised his right to counsel after receiving the warning, thus foreclosing interrogation. Three days later, while still in custody, he was again Mirandized and questioned by a different officer about a different burglary. This officer was not aware that defendant had previously invoked his right to counsel. An incriminating statement was obtained.

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second investigation, the same need to determine whether the suspect has requested counsel exists. The police departments failure to honor that request cannot be justified by the lack of diligence of a particular officer.

iii)Fifth or Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel McNeil v. Wisconsin (1991)

(a) An accused who is arraigned and asks for counsel is invoking the Sixth Amendment, rather than the Miranda, right to counsel (b) There is a difference in the protections provided: 1. An invocation of the Sixth Amendment rights is offense-specific; therefore police can initiate questioning on crimes other than the crime with which the defendant was charged. 2. An invocation of the Fifth Amendment right to counsel protects against police-initiated interrogation with respect to any crime. (c) Note: Lower courts have followed the footnote170 in the majority opinion in McNeil and have held that the Miranda right to counsel cannot be invoked in advance of police interrogation.171

III.Sixth Amendment
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district where in the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense.

A. The Right to Counsel: The Massiah Rule (April 26: 783 801) i) The Massiah Doctrine172
(a) Once adversary judicial proceedings have commenced against an individual, government efforts to deliberately elicit statements from him in the absence of his attorney (whether done openly or surreptitiously) violate the Sixth Amendment. 1. The right to the assistance of counsel at trial would be rendered meaningless if the prosecution could obtain incriminating statements from an un-counseled defendant prior to trial. 2. Reaffirmed by Brewer v. Williams (1977) Christian burial speech (b) Unlike the: 1. Due process standard, the Sixth Amendment does not require a finding of coercion 2. Miranda, neither custody nor interrogation in any traditional sense is a prerequisite (c) What is required:

170

Most rights must be asserted when the government seeks to take the action they protect against. The fact that we have allowed the Miranda right to counsel, once asserted, to be effective with respect to future custodial interrogation does not necessarily mean that we will allow it to be asserted initially outside the context of custodial interrogation, with similar future effect. 171 Alston v. Redman (3d Cir. 1994): To require that the Government first act to compel an individual to incriminate herself before that individual can assert her right to remain silent is merely to recognize that the privilege against self-incrimination acts as a shield against state action rather than as a sword, and that the shield may only be imposed when state action actually threatens. 172 Massiah v. United States (1964): A drug prosecution in which the defendants incriminating statements made to his co-defendant Colson were admitted into evidence at trial. Unbeknownst to Massiah, Colson was cooperating with federal agents, who recorded it. This occurred after both men had been indicted, retained counsel, pled not guilty, and were released on bail.

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1. That the government deliberately elicited incriminating statements from the accused in the absence of counsel (or a waiver of counsel) 2. That this occurred after the initiation of judicial proceedings, the point at which the right to counsel if triggered.

ii) The Deliberately Elicit Standard Fellers v. United States (2004)

(a) Although deliberate elicitation seems to bear a close resemblance to the functional equivalent of interrogation under Miranda, the Court has not treated the concepts as interchangeable. 1. The emphasis in the Sixth Amendment context is on the deliberate or intentional nature of the officers effort to gain incriminating evidence Looks to the officers state of mind- did she intend to elicit the confession? The determinative factor in both Massiah and Williams appeared to be the deliberate nature of the police effort to secure a confession. 2. While the test for interrogation under Miranda is broader: Whether the police engaged in conduct that they could reasonably foresee would elicit an incriminating response from the suspect, even if not designed to achieve that result. Both Rhode Island v. Innis and Arizona v. Mauro refused to find that the police conduct constituted the functional equivalent of interrogation (b) Use of undercover officers and state agents 1. Snitches United States v. Henry (1980) Background: the FBI arranged to have Nichols, a paid informant, placed as Henrys cellmate. Although the agents instructed Nichols not to question Henry about the crime, he was told to report incriminating statements to them, which he did. Holding: The Court suppressed the statements, concluding that the government had intentionally set up a situation likely to induce Henry to make incriminating statements and thus violated his Sixth Amendment right to counsel. Reasoning: Nichols was not a passive listener but rather had stimulated conversations with the defendant designed to produce incriminating admissions. Back to Fellers v. United States, the Court emphasized the deliberate character of the governments conduct, as opposed to Henrys broader language of setting up a situation likely to induce a statement. 2. The Listening Post Kuhlman v. Wilson (1986) Background: The snitch did nothing to stimulate the conversation in which the suspect made incriminating statements Holding: The Court held that to show a violation, the defendant must show that the police took some action, beyond merely listening, that was deliberately designed to elicit incriminating remarks. (a) Triggering events adversary judicial criminal proceeding: 1. Indictment 2. Information

iii)Initiation of Judicial Proceedings

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3. Arraignment 4. Preliminary hearing 5. Even if the prosecutor is not yet aware of the defendants court appearance (b) Not-triggering event Maine v. Moulton (1985): 1. Background: Prosecution obtained incriminating statements from the defendant by recording a meeting between him and a codefendant who was cooperating with the government. The statements related both to the charges that were already pending against Moulton, and to a plan to kill prosecution witnesses expected to testify in the upcoming trial. 2. Holding: The Court ordered that the admissions concerning the pending charges be suppressed but those incriminating remarks concerning crimes not yet charged but brought subsequently (the plan to kill a witness), were not subject to exclusion.

B. Waiver of the Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel (April 28: 801-811) i) Similar to Miranda waiver requirements
(a) Knowing, intelligent, and voluntary Standard Patterson v. Illinois (1988) 1. A showing that the defendant had been advised of, understood, and voluntarily waived his Miranda rights suffice to establish a waiver under the Sixth Amendment as well at least where he has not yet retained counsel. 2. Patterson left open whether an indicted suspect is entitled to a warning that he has been indicted before a waiver of the Sixth Amendment right to counsel can be found but the lower courts have held that an indictment warning is not required. (b) When is a valid Miranda waiver not sufficient: 1. Remember Moran v. Burbine permitted a waiver to stand where a suspect was not told that his lawyer was trying to reach him during questioning 2. Remember Illinois v. Perkins once an accused is indicted, surreptitious conversation between an undercover police officer and an indicted is prohibited. 3. There is no public safety exception Maine v. Moulton173 but the government may elicit and use incriminating statements regarding future crimes which may involve threats to third parties and the public (a) When an accused invokes his Sixth Amendment right to counsel, the standards for Edwards govern the waiver of Sixth Amendment rights.175 (b) An accused can only waive their rights after invoking if 1. The accused initiates the later conversation (intelligent) 2. Knowingly and voluntarily waives his right (c) Note: lower courts have held that the protections of Edward are not applicable in the Sixth Amendment context unless the accused unequivocally invokes his right to counsel.

ii) Waiving After Invoking Michigan v. Jackson (1986)174

173

To allow the admission of evidence obtained from the accused in violation of his Sixth Amendment rights whenever the police assert an alternative, legitimate reason for their surveillance invites abuse by law enforcement personnel in the form of fabricated investigations and risks the evisceration of the Sixth Amendment right recognized in Massiah. 174 The accused formally requested counsel at arraignment. Later he was interrogated by police officers about the crime for which he had been charged. The accused did not initiate the contact, but he signed a waiver form, and confessed. 175 Reasoning: The reasons for prohibiting the interrogation of an uncounseled prisoner are even stronger after he has been formally charged with an offense than before.

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iii)Waiver as to Crimes Unrelated to the Crime Charged

(a) McNeil v. Wisconsin (1991) 1. Offense-specific (different from Miranda) 2. Therefore Michigan v. Jackson applied Edwards to Sixth Amendment invocations, but McNeil did not apply the Roberson extension of Edwards to such invocations 3. Reasoning: Bad policy most persons in pretrial custody for serious offenses would be unapproachable by police officers suspecting them of involvement in other crimes, even though they have never expressed any unwillingness to be questioned. When a suspect invokes his Sixth Amendment right to counsel at an initial appearance, he does not thereby invoke a Miranda/Roberson right to counsel as to unrelated crimes. (b) Texas v. Cobb (2001) 1. Definition of an offense is not limited to the four corners of a charging instrument.176 2. Blockburger Test: Whether the two offenses require proof of a fact which the other does not. (a) If Miranda is not applicable because the statement did not result from custodial interrogation (or because the public safety or impeachment exceptions apply); and (b) The Sixth Amendment is not applicable because there was no deliberate elicitation after initiation of adversary proceedings, (c) Admission of the statement into evidence may nonetheless be challenged on the grounds that it was the product of police coercion (either physical or mental).

iv) Analyzing any interrogation or confession problem

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Blockburger v. United States (1932): Where the same act or transaction constitutes a violation of two distinct statutory provisions, the test to be applied to determine whether there are two offenses or only one, is whether each provision requires proof of a fact which the other does not.

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