Foundation of Calculus

July 15, 2009

Abstract
be paralleled with a physical interpretation  We rst understand what is there in coordinate geometry for us  dene slope of two points and extend that denition to understand the slope of a line  see how slope keeps changing as the line orientation keeps changing  dene function and then dene what is domain & range of a function  plotting of function graphs  Lecture 2 : Physical interpretation of derivative in terms of whatever we learnt till now Physical interpretation of limits with 4 examples  dene limits  limits formulae  examples Lecture 3 : Derivatives  denition of derivative  derivative of some examples from using denition  formulae & its usage  lots of interesting

Lecture 1 : We learn the foundation of calculus using denition approach  Any concept will be dened and then later if required will

problems Lecture 4 : Integration  Physical interpreation of integration  integration vs derivative (mathematically speaking)  problems (circle area,
circumference, volume of cylinder, sphere )  numerical problems  formulae & Use

Denition approach of learning new topics

Denition approach is what we will use here. We won't really try to physically locate what the denitions are saying but rather will except them as starting blocks to start understanding of further development of the topic. Calculus can be best understood using physics. We can have some examples from physics but we will solve lot of problems that are mathematical and are going to use the denition and validate that.

CONTENTS

Contents
I Lecture I
1 Cartesian coordinate system
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Plotting points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dene slope for two points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Slope of a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Slopes of line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4
4
4 5 5 7

2 Functions
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Examples of a functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Finding values of function in Functions and their graphs

8
8 8 8 9

y = f (x)

form

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Domain and range of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

II Lecture 2
3 Examples of what is a Limit?
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Polygon becomes circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bucket is full or overowing?[5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rotating a marble tied to a cord Denition of Limit Formulae of limits A numerical example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11
11
11 12 13 13 15 15 15 18

Worked out problems in limits

Practise Problems in Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

III Lecture 3
4 Derivatives
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Derivatives of other functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding the Derivative denition geometrically[1] . . . . . Rate of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Function & its examples in Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous rate of change[3] Composition of functions Chain Rule and friends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Derivative of a composite function

19
19
23 23 25 25 26 27 27 28

IV Lecture 4
5 Integration
5.1 5.2 5.3 Dierentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indenite Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Denite Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Way to evaluate Denite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30
30
30 30 31 31

CONTENTS
5.4 Methods of Solving Integrals 5.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35 35

Method of substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

Part I

Lecture I
We start are understanding dening the coordinate space. And further will use this to understand functions and physical implications of function, derivative and integration.

Cartesian coordinate system

Cartesian coordinate system: A system of two perpendicular axes, x & y axis as in the adjoining gure.

Denition.

A sign convention is laid on the axes. Part of x-axis right of y-axis is positive x axis and left is negative x-axis. Similarly above x-axis, y axis is positive and below is negative. This convention is laid to uniquely locate a point in space.

Denition.
&

Point in Coordinate space :

Any point in the space is denoted as

(a, b) where a is called the x coordinate

is called the y coordinate. Now x-coordinate is the distance of the point

from y axis & y-coordinate is the distance of the point from x axis. See in the above gure.

1.1 Plotting points

Example.
Plot the following points (1,2), (2,0),(0,3),(-1,2),(-1,-1)

To plot the point

(1, 2)

we rst move x-coordinate value along x axis (i.e. 1

) and then move y-coordinate value parellel to y-axis (i.e. 2 )

1.2 Dene slope for two points

1.2 Dene slope for two points

Denition.
If dened as Slope (m) of line joining two points &

P (x1 , y1 )

Q (x2 , y2 )

then slope of line joining these two points is

m=

y2 y1 x2 x1

Example.
(1, 2)

Find the slope of the line joining the pair of points

&

(2, 3)
&

(1, 2) (4, 0) (2, 3)

&

(3, 1)

10, 0) (2, 10)

&

Solution

Slope of

(1, 2)

&

(2, 3)

is

32 =1 21 1 2 3 = 3 (1) 4

Slope of

(1, 2)

&

(3, 1)

is

Slope of

(4, 0)

&

10, 0)

is

00 =0 4 10 10 3 = U ndef ined 22

Slope of

(2, 3)

&

(2, 10)

is

. Means the line joining

these two points is parellel to y-axis

1.3 Slope of a line

Denition.
dened as Slope of a line & Take any two points

(x1 , y1 ) y y2 y1 = x x2 x1

(x2 , y2 )

on the line the slope of the line is

Informally dened as : rate of change of y with respect to corresponding change in x

1 CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

Observe one important point here Slope of line =

y2 y1 = tan x2 x1

Example.
1. 2. 3. 4.

Find the slope of the following lines

2x + 3y = 6 x=2 y=4 xy =3

Solution
1. In

2x + 3y = 6, (3, 0)

the line hence Slope

(0, 2) satisfy 20 = = 2 3 03
&

the equation. i.e. these points lie on

2. In

x = 2, (2, 0)

&

line hence Slope

(2, 1) saties the equation 10 = = undef ined 22

i.e. these points lie on the

3. In y=4, hence

(0, 4) & (1, 4) satises the equation i.e. 44 Slope = =0 10

&

these points lie on the line

4. In

x y = 3, (3, 0)

the line hence Slope

(0, 3) satises 0 (3) = =1 30

the equation i.e. these points lie on

1.4 Slopes of line

1.4 Slopes of line

Denition.
Inclination of a line Angle ( ) made by a line with positive x-axis such that

0<

Once we have dened the angle of inclination then we will see what is the relation between increase in angle of inclination and slope.

[1] Can you see that as the inclination of the line increases from 0 to going close to right angle there is increase in slope.

0 0 0 0 {/ = 0 , 30 , 45 , 60 . . .} then corre1 sponding slopes = {m/m = 0, , 1, 3, . . .} since slope= tan 3 And the same thing happens corespondingly in the second quandrant ( , ) as increases correspondingly sllope too increases. 2
For example, angle of inclination =

Fact.

Can you see the trend that is seen?

1. Slope of a line parellel to x axis is Zero 2. The slope of line increases as is moves away form positive x axis in anticlockwise sense towards y axis to reach a huge innite value. 3. At angle

/2

, the slope is undened.

4. Again it increases from positive y axis in counterclockwise direction towards negative x axis.

2 FUNCTIONS

Functions

Functions are expressions that exhibit the functioning of a particular thing. Like a mixer grinder, weighing machine. etc.

Denition.

A function

assignes a unique value of

y = f (x) y.

is dened as a rule which for all values of

So mathematically a function can be seen as

f :XY

as a mapping that

goes from set X to Y moreover the mapping can be one to one or many to one.

2.1 Examples of a functions

1. Linear function :

y = 2x + 3, 2x + 3y = 4,

lines in dierent forms. They are called linear as they are of degree one in x & y.

y x + =1 2 3

are equations of

2. Trigonometric function : trigonometric functions.

y = sin x, y = cos x, y = sin( x)

are all

3. Exponential function :

y = ax , y = 2x , y = ex are exponential functions. variable Note they are constant kind of functions. Students often confuse 2 constant them with x kind of functions which are variable form.

2.2 Finding values of function in y = f (x) form

Let us work on some examples of evaluating values of functions at particular value of x.

1. If

x+1 1 1 then what is f (2), f ( ), f ( ) 2 x x1 2+1 f (2) = =3 21 3 1 +1 = 21 = 3 f(1) = 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 +1 1+x 1 f(x) = x = = f (x) 1 1x x 1 f (x) =

2.3 Functions and their graphs

Denition.
function. Graph A graph is the collection of all points

(x, y)

that satisfy the equation of the

Example 1.
Points

Let us plot the graph of the equation &

y = 2x + 3

(1, 5)

(0, 3)

satify the equation and the equation is linear in x & y

2.4 Domain and range of a function

Example 2.
Points

Plot the graph of the function given as

y = x2 + 1

Plotting points and getting a rough idea of the graph.

(0, 1), (1, 2), (1, 2), (2, 5), (2, 5).

So we get a rough idea of the graph

and what remains is to get the graph smooth.

2.4 Domain and range of a function

Denition.
Domain (Df ): All values that will be taken (input) by the function of x that keeps the function well dened.

y = f (x)

i.e. all values

Denition.
i.e.

Range (Rf ):

All values of y (output) that will be taken for all values of

x Df

i.e.

y Rf

Rf = {y | y = f (x) such that x Df }

Domain and range of the following functions

Example 3.
1.

2.

1 x Df = R {0} Rf = R {0} f (x) = x Df : [0, ) Rf : [0, ) (since x f (x) =

is positive root of x)

10

2 FUNCTIONS
1 f (x) = x Df : (0, ) (since can take only positive values) Rf : (0, ) (since the fraction cannot become zero!
root of x) 4.

3.

and

is positive

1 1 + x2 Df = R Rf = (0, 1] ( use f (x) = f (x) = 1 1 + x2

the quadratic method to nd

Rf

5.

Df : R Rf : (0, 1]
6.

f (x) = sin x Df : R since sine is welldened for any angle. Rf : [1, 1] (since any angle given, sin x lies between 1

& 1)

11

Part II 3

Lecture 2
Examples of what is a Limit?
Go through them without worrying if you are not Instruction for this section : In the examples below, you might not understand how few limits are used. examples. Let us consider an example to understand what Limits is exactly. following something. Going further you will understand what we did in these

3.1 Polygon becomes circle1

A circle of radius in that circle.

is constructed. We can construct regular polygons inscribed

Now we can approximate the area of circle to be equal to area of a polygon where number of sides is a very large number. Suppose we have a polygon inscribed that has Area of the polygon is

sides.

1 2 A = n r2 sin 2 n
The end to this process of continuously increasing the number of sides of the inscribed polygon is same as trying to nd the limit (english word meaning) of this process. The process limit or end would be that the polygon has become a circle. So as

n ,

Area of polygon

This is written in notational form as

Area of the circle. lim Area of polygon = Area of Circle

n

Area of Circle = =

lim

lim

1 2 2 r n sin 2 n r2 sin 2 n
2 n

= r2 lim = r2 1
1 You

sin 2 n
2 n

[using lim

sin = 1]

can view the animation of Polygon tending to a circle at TeachingMathematics

12

3 EXAMPLES OF WHAT IS A LIMIT?

lim sin = 1 [1] 0 So we are proving this now!
We used above In the neighbourhood of

= 0.

We see that

QRP Area of sector QRPArea of QRK sin 1 r2 1 r2 tan 2 2 sin tan Assuming we are seeing for > 0 without loss of generality, and idea will follow for < 0 1 sin cos cos sin 1 sin As 0 lim cos lim 1
Area of

1 2 2r

similar steps

lim

sin 0

=1

[U sing Sandwich theorem]

3.2 Bucket is full or overowing?[5]

Consider this example of lling a bucket with the following rule, Each hour the bucket is lled by half the amount left empty. started at the beginning the bucket is empty. So when the process is First hour half the bucket is

half lled ( ) , next hour we have half bucket left and hence we ll (

1 Third hour we have lled half of the left lled, So we have ( 2

1 2

1 2 1 4

+ +

1 4 ). 1 8 ).

keep doing this process we get (

1/2 1 1 1 2 + 4 + 8 + = 11/2 = 1). So this is another example of limit concept. Here the end state of this process

And

is that the bucket is always lled by half the amount left and that would never allow the bucket to get full, but if the process is continued till innity the end state would be lling the bucket.

3.3 Rotating a marble tied to a cord

13

3.3 Rotating a marble tied to a cord

A marble tied to a cord if rotated about the center. So during this rotation if the marble rotates about the arc specied in the adjoining diagram. Now if the cord reaches the point

and the cord is cut

what do u think what would be the path of the marble. Think about this! The marble would move along the tangent to its path at the point. So that means it will move along the tangent to the path. To nd that path we need to

nd the tangent at that very point. So tangent at point the right of the point

can be approximated using the secant joining any

other point to the right of

and point

A.

Now we keep moving the point to

i.e.

B1

towards

along the points

B2 , B3 , B4 , B5 ,

to reach

A.

So in limit notation we can write this as

as Bi A

i.e. lim Secant ABi = T angent at A

i

3.4 A numerical example

Consider this term except

f (x) =

x2 1 x1 . Now this term is well dened at all

x R

x = 1. f (x)
takes as

We want to see what numerical value does closer and closer to 1.

x1

i.e. x goes

14

3 EXAMPLES OF WHAT IS A LIMIT?

But

can get closer and closer to 1 from two directions, one from left of 1

and other from right of 1.

x 1+
As x approches to 1 from right of 1. what value does

x f (x) x 1

1.1 2.1

1.01 2.01

1.001 2.001

1.0001 2.0001

Can you make out what is happening

f (x) takes? 1.00001 2.00001 + as x 1 then f (x) 2 f (x)

takes?

As x approaches to 1 from left of 1. What values does x 0.9 1.9 0.99 1.99 0.999 1.999 0.9999 1.9999 0.99999 1.99999

f (x)

So you can see that here to the limit for Hence we conclude mathematically that

f (x)

is 2.

x2 1 =2 x2 x 1 lim

3.5 Denition of Limit

15

3.5 Denition of Limit

If is

y = f (x) l

is given and as

x a , f (x) l

then we say that the limit of

f (x)
Note : here the equality in the mathematical way of writing the limit is not the usual equality.

Mathematically that is written as

xa

lim f (x) = l

It is just a representation that

f (x)
Now let us put some thought on the denition of limit Since

is getting closer to

as

goes closer to a.

x a, f (x) l, now x tending to a means x comes closer to a. x will come closer to a from left of a and right of a. For example, x 2 means x will take values 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999, . . . from left of 2 and 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001, . . .. from right of 2.
we say as

lies on Real line

So the above denition,

xa
actually means

lim f (x) exists

LHL RHL

= = &

xa xa+

lim f (x) exists

lim f (x) exists

LHL = RHL = l

3.6 Formulae of limits

1.

x0

lim

sin x = 1, lim cos x = 1 x0 x

x

&

x0

lim

tan x =1 x

2.

x0

1 lim (1 + x)1/x = e = lim (1 + x )x

3.

ax 1 = log a , a > 0 x0 x lim

3.7 Worked out problems in limits

1.

x2 4 x2 x 2 lim x2 4 x2 x 2 lim = = = (x 2)(x + 2) x2 lim (x + 2) (since here x 2 So x 2 = 0) lim

x2 x2

x 2 = x + 2 4 & x 2 (x + 2)(x 2) 0 = 4 (since x 2 is a f actor both numertor x2 denominator)

Above method implicitly means this as

16

3 EXAMPLES OF WHAT IS A LIMIT?

x2 4 x0 x 2 lim
Now observe in this problem the function is not undened at happen in the rst problem above?

2.

x = 0.

So

the limit is same as the function value at that point. But why doesnt that

x0

lim

x2 4 04 = x2 02 = 2

3.

x0 As x

1 lim sin x

here

sin

gets applied on it to oscillate it more and more often.

And hence it doesnt reach any point. Check the gure hence the limits remains

undened.

4.

x0 As x

1 lim x sin x

here though

1 sin x

oscillates

term goes closer and closer to

zero. decreasing the osciallation and leading the total product to zero . Hence the limit is Zero.

5. Find the limit of the following function at respective points

(a)

f (x) = |x|

at

x=0 f (x) = |x| = x x x0 . x<0

Now we need to nd

Now we know that the limit of

|x| at x = 0.

This will be LHL and RHL and both should

be equal for the limit to exist. Remember the story of two villages that were separated by a forest and a river passing through the center of the village dividing the villages.

3.7 Worked out problems in limits

17

RHL = = =

x0+ x0+

lim |x| lim x

LHL

= = =

x0 x0

lim |x| lim (x)

Hence we see that both the RHL and LHL are equal hence we say that the limit exists for this function at zero. (b)
2

f (x) =

1 x0 1 x < 0 LHL = = =

at

x=1

x1+

lim f (x) lim 1 (to the right of 1 f (x) = 1)

x1+

RHL = = =

x1

lim f (x) lim 1 (since f (x) = 1 f or x < 1)

x1

Since LHL=RHL hence the limits exist and is equal to 1. But did you observe here we needed to nd the limit at the To the left and right of is

x = 1.

x=1

the function had the same value that

f (x) = 1.

Hence instead of nding LHL and RHL we could have just wrote

limit = =

x1

lim f (x) lim 1 (since f (x) takes same value)

x1

2 Now you might have a question as why we didn't try to solve the previous limit problem as LHL and RHL but just worked out limit? This was purely done since in previous problem the function denition was not changing on either side of the point of nding limit. But in the present problem the function is dierent to the left and right of the point x = 0. In the previous problem nding the LHL and RHL is same as nding the limits in general. But actually limits is dened as
xa

lim f (x) =

xa+

lim f (x) =

xa

lim f (x)

18

3 EXAMPLES OF WHAT IS A LIMIT?

(c)

f (x) =

1 x0 1 x < 0

at

x=0

Now will we just nd limit here without trying to see what is the RHL and LHL?? Here we have to nd the LHL and RHL separately and check if both are equal. If both are equal then the function has limits at else it doesnt have a limit.

x=0

or

RHL = = = LHL = =

x0+ x0+

lim f (x) lim 1 (since right of 0 f (x) = 1)

1 lim f (x) lim (1) (since lef t of 0 f (x) = 1)

x0 x0

= 1
And we see that

LHL = RHL

Hence the limits doesnt exist in this case.

3.8 Practise Problems in Limits

1.

x0

lim+

sin x |x|

(Solution : 1)

2.

lim

tan

(Solution : 1)

3. Find the anwers to the following functions, given sented in the adjoining gure (a)

Df : [0, 3]

and is repre-

f (1)

19

(b) (c) (d) (e) (f ) (g)

x1+

lim f (x) lim f (x)

x1 x1

lim f (x) lim f (x) lim f (x)

x2+

x2

f (2)

Solutions- a:2,b:1,c:1,d:1,e:0,f:-1,g:0

Part III 4

Lecture 3
Derivatives
Derivative of a function

Denition.

y = f (x)

at a point

x=a

is dened as

dy dx

=
x=a

f (x) f (a) xa f (a + h) f (a) = lim h0 h

xa

lim

Above we found derivative of the function at some particular point What if we want to nd the derivative at any point Simple right?

x?

We just replace

x = a. a by x!

Notation : If given y = f (x),

dy d = g(x) = g (x) dx dx

So the derivative of a function

y = f (x) = lim

at any point

is given as

dy dx

at any x

f (x + h) f (x) h0 h

Example.

If

f (x) = sin x, g(x) =

x+1 x1

then we have

20

4 DERIVATIVES
f (t) = sin t, g(t) = t+1 t1 t1+1 t = t11 t2

1.

2.

f (t 1) = sin(t 1), g(t) =

3.

f (ex ) = sin(ex ), g(ex ) =

ex + 1 ex 1 ax2 + bx + c + 1 ax2 + bx + c 1

4.

f (ax2 + bx + c) = sin(ax2 + bx + c), g(ax2 + bx + c) = cos x + 1 cos x 1 h(x) + 1 h(x) 1

5.

f (cos x) = sin(cos x), g(x) =

6.

f (h(x)) = sin(h(x)), g(x) =

Denition.
f (g(x))

Composite function

Given functions

y = f (x) & y = g(x) then composition of functions f g(x) =

Example.

f (x) = sin x & g(x) = ex then f g(x) = f (g(x)) = sin(g(x)) = sin(ex ) & g f (x) = g(f (x)) = ef (x) = esin x
Given Find the derivative of the function

nd

f g(x)

&

g f (x)

Problem.

y = f (x) = x

dy dx

= = = = =

f (x + h) f (x) h0 h x+hx lim h0 h h lim h0 h lim 1 lim

h0

1 f (x) = x
is

That means the derivative of

d (x) = 1 dx x.
Now derivative

We know the derivative is slope of the tangent at a point

means slope of the tangent to

f (x) = x

at any point is

Problem.

Find the derivative of the function

y = f (x) = x2 . x.
Let us

Here in the problem they have not asked at which point of x we want to nd the derivative means they want us to nd the derivative at any point use the above denition.

21

dy dx

= = = = =

f (x + h) f (x) h 2 (x + h) x2 lim h0 h 2xh + h2 lim h0 h 2x + h lim (since h 0, hence h = 0) h0 1 2x

h0

lim

Problem.

Find the derivative of

f (x) = xn

where

nN

Again using the denition of derivative

dy dx

f (x + h) f (x) h (x + h)n xn = lim h0 h h(nxn1 + c1 xn2 h + c2 xn3 h2 + . . . + hn1 ) = lim h0 h n1 = nx =

h0

lim

Hence we can write

d 2 (x ) = 2x dx d 3 (x ) = 3x2 dx d 4 (x ) = 4x3 dx

d n (x ) = nxn1 . dx

Now we can nd any of these

. So we have ended up nding general formula for derivative of

functions of the form

variableconstant

Problem.

Find the derivative of

f (x) = 2

This is a constant function.

dy dx

f (x + h) f (x) h 22 = lim h0 h = 0 =
h0

lim

Can you see that derivative of a constant function is coming out to be zero. That means derivative of any function

f (x) = c

is

Zero.

Problem.

Prove the relation

What we mean here is a constant can come out of the derivative operator. By denition,

d d (k f (x)) = k (f (x)) where k dx dx

is a constant.

22

4 DERIVATIVES

d (k f (x)) dx

= = = =

k f (x + h) k f (x) h f (x + h) f (x) lim k h0 h f (x + h) f (x) k lim h0 h d k (f (x)) dx

h0

lim

Theorem.

Derivative of Addition/Subtraction of functions is equal to addi-

tion/subtraction of their derivatives

df (x) dg(x) 3 d (f (x) g(x)) = + dx dx dx d df (x) dg(x) (f (x) g(x)) = f (x) + g(x) dx dx dx f g g = dg df f dx dx g2

d dx

3 To nd the derivative of f (x) with respect to x is also called as dierentiating f (x) with respect to x

4.1 Derivatives of other functions

23

4.1 Derivatives of other functions

We have seen 1.

d n (x ) = nxn1 dx
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

d (k) = 0 dx d (x) = x11 = x0 = 1 dx d 2 (x ) = 2x21 = 2x dx d 1 (x ) = x11 = x2 dx

2.

d 1 (loge x) = dx x
(a)

d d loga e d (loga x) = (loge x loga e) = loga e (loge x) = dx dx dx x d d (k f (x)) = k (f (x)) ) we used here : dx dx

( note

3.

d x (a ) = ax loge a dx
(a)

d x (e ) = ex (note this is the function whose derivative is the function dx

itself )

4. Trigonometric functions

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f )

d (sin x) = cos x dx d (cos x) = sin x dx d (tan x) = sec2 x dx d (cot x) = cosec2 x dx d (sec x) = sec x cosec x dx d (cosec x) = cosec x cot x dx

4.2 Understanding the Derivative denition geometrically[1]

Given a function

y = f (x).

Let the curve of this function be as in the adjoining

gure. Let us see what this term means geometrically

f (x + h) f (x) f (x + h) f (x) = h (x + h) (x)

24

4 DERIVATIVES

Let us locate this term in the gure.

tan =
A & B,

y f (x + h) f (x) = is the slope of the x h where is the angle made by the secant with

secant joining the points positive x axis.

And the by the denition of the derivative as to come closer and closer to point A i.e.

h 0 means point B will tend

That means geometrically the

B A.

secant joining A & B will become tangent at A. Thats Beautiful! isn't it! Yes this the geometrical interpretations we are interested in nding the tangent to the curve
4

y = f (x)

and this is a very strong method.

Example.

I have a ladder of length

L = 5m

inclined on a wall.

Now if the

ladder has no friction with the wall and ground and if it starts sliding under gravity then

1. What is the displacement of base with oor when the the base with the wall at

4m

height has displaced with

0.1m? 4m
from the ground?

2. What is the velocity of the base with wall when the velocity of the base with wall is

3m/sec

and at a distance of

Solution :

From the diagram,

x2 + y 2 = l 2 2 2 2 Also, (x + x) + (y y) = l 2 2 Solving both equations we get (x) + (y) + 2xx 2yy = 0

Now we need the instanteneous velocities of both the bases. To nd that we

need to get

t0

lim

x t

&

t0

lim

y t

4 Note one thing, in the geometrical interpretation of derivative above point B A that is B goes closer and closer to A. But can never reach the point A since if the point B reaches point A the secant will dissapear instead of determining the tangent. Hence we utilize limit since the secant if continuously goes near and near to tangent that means the nal limit of the nearing process is the nal tangent at point A. Interesting hmmm..

4.3 Rate of change

Obviously, if we say, very small time

25

t has elapsed and we are still making t 0. That means even the displacement x & y 2 2 are going closer to zero too. So (x) & (y) are becoming more smaller and can be neglected at t 0.
it closer to zero by doing Hence we have,

xx yy = 0
1. We need to nd

x when we know y = 4, x = 3 & y = 0.1 yy = 0.133m towards right ( positive signies along x = x x y x y =0 t t y = vy t
&

positive x

axis)

2. From the above equation, as

x = vx & t So we have xvx = yvy Given, vy = 3m/sec & y = 4m x = 3m t 0

vx = 4m/sec

Now we see the solution of this problem using derivatives From geometry we get

x2 + y 2 = L2 t
we get

Dierentiating with respect to time

d d 2 d 2 (x ) + (y 2 ) = (L ) dt dt dt dx dy 2x + 2y = 0 (Since Derivative of constant = 0) dt dt xvx + yvy = 0

4.3 Rate of change

If change in

y = f (x) then x.
Similarly,

rate of change in

with respect to change in corresponding

Rate of change is dened as

y x x
when there

In physics we need to monitor what is change in displacement is a change in time i.e.

t.

Since displacment is dened as a function of time.

x = f (t) =

x x2 x1 f (t2 ) f (t1 ) = = t t2 t1 t2 t1 f (t2 ) f (t1 ) dx lim Average V elocity = lim = = v t2 t1 t2 t1 dt velocity at time t1
Average velocity

= Instantaneous

4.4 Function & its examples in Physics

Let us see some examples of how functions exist in physics. 1. A person drives his car in a straight line such that he starts from a point A and movesx a distance of 2m in every one second. That means in

26

4 DERIVATIVES
seconds will travel travel

2t

metres. So the function relating the time taken

5

to

distance is given by

x = or x(t) =

2t 2t

So what is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time, between

t=1 2.

and

t = 2.

We know that rate of change of displacement is

x2 x1 42 x = = = t t2 t1 21 t = 1.
For that we

In physics, rate of change of diplacement is termed as velocity.

Hence the average velocity is need to get the secant at

2.
which is a tangent. And we know that the

What if we want to nd the instateneous velocity at

t=1

tangent is the derivative. So the velocity at

t=1

is

dx d = (2t) = 2 dt dt

2. A particle starts moving from a starting point A such that velocity at every point is given by

v = 2t3

where

is the time taken. Then how is

acceleration related to velocity and time taken.

v = 2t3
The rate of change of velocity is termed in physics as acceleration i.e.

a=

dv . dt

Dierentiating we get,

a=

dv d d = (2t3 ) = 2 (t3 ) = 2 3t2 = 6t2 dt dt dt

4.5 Instantaneous rate of change[3]

Now we know that average rate of change in the function as

y = f (x) is represented

y x

and to get the instantaneous rate we use the limit of average

x0

lim

y x

5 Since x can be expressed in terms of variable t. Second notation describes that. We have see if a function f is expresses in terms of x then we write it as y = f (x).

4.6 Chain Rule and friends

Similarly, Instantaneous Velocity

27

lim Average V elocity x = lim t0 t f (t2 ) f (t1 ) = lim t0 t2 t1 dx = dt x = f (t) dv v = = lim t0 t dt

where Displacement is a function of time i.e. Instantaneous Acceleration

4.6 Chain Rule and friends

If

is a function of

and

is a function of

then

dy dt dy = dx dt dx
From chain rule we can nd the derivative of composite functions In

y = f (g(x))

let

t = g(x)

&

y = f (t)

Dierentiating,

dt = g (x) dx dy = f (t) y = f (t) dt t = g(x)

Using Chain rule

dy dt dt dx = f (t) g (x) d d d f (g(x)) = (f (t)) g(x) dx dt dx t=g(x) =

Parametric form If we have Then

dy dx

y = (t)

and

x = (t)

two functions which both depend on

t.

dy dx dx dt dy dx

= =

dy (using chain rule) dt dy/dt dx/dt

4.7 Composition of functions

Denition.
dened as If

f (x)

&

g(x)

are functions of

then composition of

&

are

(f g)(x) = f (g(x))
This can be generalised as

(f g h s)(x) = f (g(h( s(x) )))

28

4 DERIVATIVES
A general non-mathematical example of composite function.

Example.

Rotation of fan (r) depends on the current passing into the fan (c), mathematically can be written ically can be written

r = f (c)

And the ux of air (a) made to move by the fan on rotation (r), mathematThis composite function

a = g(r) current(c) rotation(r) air f lux(a) r = f (c) a = g(c)

?

This same example can be converted to parametric form Rotation of fan (r) depends on current(c) i.e. Also air ux(a) coming from the fan depends on the current(c) i.e.

Example.

Given

f (x) = sin x

&

g(x) = x2

then

(f g)(x)

&

(g f )(x)

Solution :

(f g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 ) = sin(x2 ) (g f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(sin x) = (sin x)2 = sin2 x

Example.

Given

f (x)

&

g(x)

as in the above example nd

(f g f g)(x)

(f g f g)(x)

= f (g(f (g(x)))) = f (g(f (x2 ))) = f (g(sin x2 )) = f (sin2 x2 ) = sin(sin2 x2 )

Problem.
1. If 2. If

Practice problems

f (x) = x2 & g(x) = x then nd f g & g f f (x) = 1 + x2 & g(x) = x2 1 then nd f g

&

gf

4.8 Derivative of a composite function

If

y = (f g)(x)

is a composite of functions of

f (x)

&

g(x)

then

(f g) (x) = f (g(x)) g (x) d(f g) df (g(x) dg = dx dx dx y = f (x), x = g(t) y = f (g(t)) same as composite. right! This is same as chain rule, If

y = f (x)

&

x = g(t)

then

dy dy dx = dt dx dt

Example.
2t2 + 1

If the displacement

x(t)

is given as a function of time

as

x(t) =

Instanteneous Velocity is

v(t) =

Instanteneous Acceleration is

d d (x(t)) = (2t2 + 1) = 4t dt dt d d a(t) = (v(t)) = (4t) = 4 dt dt

4.8 Derivative of a composite function

29

Rate of change of Velocity with respect to displacement

4/4t =

1 t

dv dv dx = / = dx dt dt

30

5 INTEGRATION

Part IV 5

Lecture 4
Integration
5.1 Dierentials
Let us rst understand what do we mean by dierentials Dierential of

lim x and is denoted as dx x0 So a dierential dx is a small dynamic change in

is is

(Remember dierential

of

d(x) = dx)
See the following worked examples of dierentials

Example.

1. Dierential of 2. Dierential of 3. Dierential of 4. Dierential of 5. Dierential of

is

dy
is is

f (x) sin x

d(f (x)) = f (x)dx d(sin x) = cos x dx

sin x2 is d(sin x2 ) = cos x2 2x dx f (g(x))

is

d(f (g(x))) = f (g(x)) g (x)dx f (x)

is

This can be seen in a dierent way, dierential of produced by dierenting

d(f (x))

this can be

f (x)

with respect to the independent variable here i.e.

df (x) d f (x) = = f (x) d(f (x)) = f (x) dx dx dx

5.2 Indenite Integration

Denition.
It is dened as reverse operation of Dierentiation. Also called Anti-derivative.

Notation:
f (x)dx

: read as integral of

f (x)

dx which means we are trying to nd

that function whose derivative with respect to x is for example:

f (x) cos x
is

sin x dx = cos x

: means derivative of

sin x

1.

d n+1 xn+1 (x ) = (n + 1) xn xn dx = where n = 1 dx n+1 d x ax (a ) = ax loge a ax dx = dx loge a d 1 (loge x) = dx x

1 x dx

2.

3.

= loge x

4.

d x (e ) = ex ex dx = ex dx

5. Trigonometric functions

5.3 Denite Integration

d (sin x) = cos x cos x dx = sin x dx d (cos x) = sin x sin x dx = cos x dx d (tan x) = sec2 x sec2 x dx = tan x dx

31

(a) (b) (c)

5.3 Denite Integration

Denition.
b
x=b
It is the area under the curve

y = f (x)

from x varying from

to

(see the diagram)

Notation :
f (x)

: read as integral of

f (x)

from

x=a

to

x = b.

x=a

y = f (x) and want to nd the x = a (point A) and x = b (point B) along x-axis. And along y-axis its bounded by y = f (x) and x-axis. This is represented by denite b integral f (x) dx
We see here if we have a function area bounded between

Example.

a
We can nd this area under the curve (as its called) using approximation. We cover the area with rectangles and keep on increasing the number of such rectangles (just as we worked out to approximate the area of circle with area of n-gon). And then we nd limit of this process which turns out to be denite integral stated above. In the gure below, we have shown some stages of increasing the number of rectangles between nally.

x=a

&

x = b.

Here

n = 4, 7, 12, 26, 60,

the limits case

5.3.1 Way to evaluate Denite Integrals

This is called the Fundamental Law

32

5 INTEGRATION
d F (x) = f (x) then f (x) dx = F (x) dx x=b b Hence f (x) dx = F (x)|a = F (b) F (a)
x=a

Example.

Evaluate

2 1

x2 dx x3 +c 3 2 x2 dx
1

We know

x2 dx =

x3 3

2 1

= =

23 13 3 3 7/3

Example. Find the area of the circle with radius R using integration Method I
Area of the circle is integration of all small circles concentric with the given circle (as shown in the gure) We take a random such small thickness circle at a variable distance the center.

from

Now the area of the thin ring of from center

dx

thickness at a distance of

(random)

= 2r dr zero(0)
to

Now we collect all such thin rings which are at a distance of

lim x so dx is an every decreasing and shrinking quantity. Hence the limit of x0 the approximation gets us the integration to give the right answer.

6 dx =

5.3 Denite Integration

from the center. And that is done with integration

33

r=R

A =
r=0

2rdr 2 rdr|0 2 2 R2 r2 2
R 0 R

= = = =

R2 0 2 2

Method II
Now we make the small element in a dierent sense. See the gure

To nd the area of the circle we are collecting all small sectors of angle For that we collect all small sectors lying at an angle where

d.

from positive x-axis

= 0 to 2.
=2

=
=0

1 2 R d 2
=2

1 2 R 2

d
=0 2 0

1 2 2 R 2 2

1 2 4 2 0 = R ( ) 2 2 2 = R2

Method III
Here in this third type of solution, the strip is parellel to y-axis with thickness and at a distance of

dx

(variable) from y-axis.

34

5 INTEGRATION
Area of the thin strip

= 2 R2 x2 dx

Area of the circle is by collecting all such strips from

x = R

to

x=R

x=R

Area of circle

=
x=R

2 x 2

R2 x2 dx R2 x sin1 ( ) 2 R
x=R x=R

R 2 x2 +

R2 R2 sin1 (1)) (0 + sin1 (1))} = 2{(0 + 2 2 R2 = 2 ( ( )) 2 2 2 = R2

Example.
u + 2as
2

Derive Kinematical Equations

v = u + at, s = ut + 1 at2 , v 2 = 2

In the kinemetical equations, acceleration is assumed to be constant.

Integrating,

dv a= = constant = a dt dv = a dv = adt (Note dt dv = v|v u t

0

: this is the dierential form)

v u

adt

= at|t 0 v u = at i.e. v = u + at ds Now v = = u + at ds = udt + atdt dt s t t Integrating, ds = udt + atdt

0 1 s|s = ut|t + 2 at2 |t 0 0 0 1 2 s = ut + 2 at 0 0

5.4 Methods of Solving Integrals

dv =a dt dv ds dv =a v = a vdv = ads ds dt ds v s vdv = ads
0

35

Finally,

u2 v2 = as v 2 u2 = 2as 2 2

Example.

Find the Volume of a sphere.

Let us take a small shell at a random distance The thickness of this shell is

from center of the sphere.

dr.

So volume taken by the shell is

4rdr. r3 3
R

Hence volume of the sphere of radius

R=

R 0

4r2 dr = 4

R 0

r2 dr = 4

=
0

4 3 R 3

5.4 Methods of Solving Integrals

5.4.1 Method of substitution
This is most widely exployed method of integration while solving problems. Here we substitute a part of the integrand such that the integral problems becomes a simple integral problem that we might have solved earlier. Let us learn this with examples

Example.

log x x dx

We Observe that some part of the integrand, transform the problem to a much simpler problem.

log x x

can be substituted to

1 dx d (log x) = d(log x) = dx x x Let t = log x dt = log x dx t2 log2 x Problem becomes, tdt = +c +c 2 2

We see

Index
Cartesian coordinate system, 4 Domain of a function, 9 Examples of limits, 11 function, 8 Inclination of a line, 7 Polygon becomes circle, 11 range of a function, 9 Slope of a line, 5

36

REFERENCES

37

References
[1] Thomas & Finney - Calculus & Analytical Geometry 6ed. [2] I A Maron - Problems in One Variable Calculus [3] Piskunov - Dierential & Integral Calculus [4] Richard Goldberg - Methods of Real Analysis [5] Bartle & Sherbert - Introduction to Real Analysis