Concept 1: Eukaryotes

Nuclear

Division

in

biologically ready to take on such a process. G1 is the phase when this cellular monitoring takes place.

Mitosis is the process of nuclear division of either a diploid (2N) or haploid (N) eukaryotic cell whereby two daughter nuclei are produced that are genetically identical to the parent nucleus. Cell division usually follows nuclear division.

During G1, the cell reviews the cellular environment and the cell size to ensure that the conditions are appropriate to support DNA replication. Not until the cell is ready does it leave G1. If all is not ready to undergo DNA replication, cells can pause during G1 and enter a phase called G0. Depending on a cell's preparedness to continue in the cell cycle, G0 can last days, weeks, or even years. When the cell has reached an appropriate size and is in a supportive environment for DNA replication, it will exit either G1 or G0 and enter the next phase of interphase called S phase. S phase S phase, or synthesis, is the phase of the cell cycle when DNA packaged into chromosomes is replicated. This event is an essential aspect of the cell cycle because replication allows for each cell created by cell division to have the same genetic make-up. During S phase a number of events additional to chromosomee replication take place. Cell growth continues through S phase, as does the rate of synthesis of a number of proteins and enzymes that are involved in DNA synthesis. Once DNA replication is complete the cell contains twice its normal number of chromosomes and becomes ready to enter the phase called G2. G2 phase Similar to G1, G2 is an intermediate phase, a time for the cell to ensure that it is ready to proceed in the cell cycle. Occurring between the end of DNA replication in S phase and the beginning of cell division in mitosis, G2 can be thought of as a safety gap during which a cell can check to make sure that the entirety of its DNA and other intracellular components have been properly duplicated. In addition to acting as a checkpoint along the cell cycle, G2 also represents the cell's final chance to grow before it is split into two independent cells during mitosis.

Mitosis usually results in the production of two progeny cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. For comparison purposes, mitosis is the process of cell division in eukaryotes, in which the parental chromosome number is conserved in each of the daughter cells, while meiosis is a two-cell-division process in sexually reproducing eukaryotes that results in cells (typically gametes) with one-half the chromosome number of the original parental cell.

Concept 2: Mitosis and the Division Cycle (Interphase)

Cell

Cells that are growing and dividing go through a repeating series of events called the cell division cycle (or cell cycle). During the first phase (G 1 ), the cell grows and prepares for DNA replication, which occurs in the subsequent S phase. Further growth takes place in the G 2 phase, and finally mitosis occurs in the M phase. G1 is an intermediate phase occupying the time between the end of cell division in mitosis and the beginning of DNA replication during S phase. During this time, the cell grows in preparation for DNA replication, and certain intracellular components, such as the centrosomes undergo replication. Before a cell begins DNA replication, it must ensure that it is

Cell Cycle Summary

Interphase is made up of three distinct phases: G1, S phase, and G2. The G1 and G2 phases serve as checkpoints for the cell to make sure that it is ready to proceed in the cell cycle. If it is not, the cell will use this time to make proper adjustments that can include cell growth, correction or completion of DNA synthesis, and duplication of intracellular components. S phase involves the replication of chromosomes. All three stages of interphase involve continued cell growth and an increase in the concentration of proteins found in the cell.

In the cytoplasm, the mitotic spindle, consisting of microtubules and other proteins, forms between the two pairs of centrioles as they migrate to opposite poles of the cell. The nuclear envelope disappears at the end of prophase. This signals the beginning of the substage called prometaphase. In prometaphase, the spindle enters the nuclear area. Specialized structures called kinetochores have formed on the centromeres of the chromosomes by this time; certain spindle microtubulesthe kinetochore microtubulesattach to the kinetochores.

Concept 3: The End of Interphase: Ready for Mitosis

The cell is ready to begin mitosis.

The chromosomes that were duplicated during the S phase are so extended that they cannot be seen individually. Outside of the nucleus of animal cells are two centrosomes, each containing a pair of centrioles. The two centrosomes are produced by the duplication of a single centrosome early in interphase. Centrosomes serve as microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs). Microtubules extend from the centrosomes radially to form an aster. Plant cells do not have centrosomes. Different kinds of microtubule organizing centers serve as sites of spindle formation.

Concept 6: Metaphase
The chromosomes become arranged on the metaphase plate and are attached to the now fully formed spindle.

Concept 4: The Process of Mitosis

Mitosis is a continuous process that consists of various stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The cell division that follows is called cytokinesis.

Concept 5: Prophase
Chromosomes become visible, the nucleolus disappears, the mitotic spindle forms, and the nuclear envelope disappears. Chromosomes become more coiled and can be viewed under a light microscope. Each duplicated chromosome is seen as a pair of sister chromatids joined by the duplicated but unseparated centromere. The nucleolus disappears during prophase.

The centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cell. The chromosomes, now at their most highly coiled and condensed, become arranged on a plane equidistant from the two poles called the

metaphase

plate. A nuclear envelope reforms around each chromosome set, the spindle disappears, and the nucleolus reforms. Nuclear division by mitosis is complete at this point. Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm, usually is in progress before nuclear division is complete. In animal cells, cytokinesis involves the formation of a cleavage furrow resulting in the pinching of the cell into two. In some specialized cases, such as in the development of the Drosophila embryo, nuclear division occurs without being followed by cytokinesis.

For each chromosome, the kinetochores of the sister chromatids face the opposite poles, and each is attached to a kinetochore microtubule coming from that pole.

Concept 7: Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate, and the now-daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell.

Anaphase begins when the duplicated centromeres of each pair of sister chromatids separate, and the now-daughter chromosomes begin moving toward opposite poles of the cell due to the action of the spindle. Depending where the centromere is located along the chromosome, a characteristic shape appears during chromosome movement. The two shown above give V and J shapes. At the end of anaphase, a complete set of chromosomes has assembled at each pole of the cell

Concept 8: Telophase
Chromosome sets assemble at opposite poles, a nuclear envelope reforms around each set, and cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) usually follows.

The chromosomes assemble in sets at the two poles. The chromosomes begin to uncoil and eventually assume the extended state characteristic of interphase.