Defects in Materials Origin , Nature & Significance

Introduction Discontinuities in materials: Origin & Nature

Inherent - Processing - Service
Assessment of Flaw significance Flaw Acceptance Standards
Workmanship vs Fitness for Purpose

Scope

NDT methods for characterizing severe flaws Case Studies

Conclusion

Interruption in Normal Physical Structure/metallurgical

- Keyways, Grooves, Holes present by design

Discontinuity

Flaw Defect

Discontinuity with undesirable connotation - Slag, Porosity, Lamination

Flaw which makes component unfit for service - Cracks, Lack of Fusion in Weld

Living with Flaws

A: Flaws which will not grow at all during service

B: Flaw which will not grow to critical size during lifetime

C: Flaw which will grow to critical size in next few inspection intervals D: Flaw size will grow to critical size before next inspection

Flaw A & B: Not significant

Flaw C & D: Significant

Role of NDT Characterization & Classification of Flaws Safety: C & D not placed as A & B Economy: A & B not placed as C & D

Components of Flaw Characterization:

Detection

Nature

Flaw Characteristics

Location

Flaw Geometry
Size, Shape , Orientation

Metallurgical Characteristics Controlling Material Properties

Chemical Composition

Microstructure

Material Properties

Dislocation Density

Crystal Structure

Heat Treatment: Commonly employed Processing Treatment to modify Metallurgical Characteristics

Classification of Engineering Products

Based on Manufacturing Route I Castings Melting - Pouring into Mould Cavity - Solidification II Powder Metallurgy Products

Powder Preparation - Pressing into Mould Cavity Sintering

III Wrought Products Cast ingot - Mechanical Working - Machining Welding Heat Treatment

Defects in Materials

Origin & Characteristics

I Inherent Discontinuities * Melting, Casting & Solidification

II

Processing Discontinuities
* Mechanical Working (Hot/Cold) - Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Forming * Welding * Heat Treatment

III

Service Discontinuities
* Fatigue, SCC, Creep Discontinuities are not necessarily Defects

Casting vs. Wrought Products

Physical Discontinuities

*
*

Chemical Inhomogeneities
Microstructural Non uniformities

Lower Quality Factor or Higher Safety Factor for Castings as compared to Wrought Products

Weld ~ Mini Casting

Quality Requirements
Metallurgical NDT Dimensional

Chemical Composition

Microstructure
Mechanical Properties Corrosion Properties

Freedom from Unacceptable Flaws affecting Structural Integrity

Stress - Magnitude - Concentration

- Distribution

Defects in Materials Origin, Nature & Significance

Casting Forging Rolling Heat Treatment Welding

Casting Defects
International Committee of Foundry Technical Association

111 casting defects in 7 categories

- Metallic Projections - Cavities - Discontinuities - Defects (Surface) - Incomplete Casting - Incorrect Dimensions - Inclusion or Structural Anomalies

Defects in Casting
* * * * * * Gas Defects Blow Holes, Porosities Shrinkage Cavity Piping Non-Metallic Inclusion Exogenous, Indigenous Chemical Inhomogeneities Segregation Contraction Defects (stress) Hot Tears, Cold Cracks Shaping Faults Misrun, Cold Shuts

Defects in Ingots

Casting Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

A depression or an internal void in a casting that results from volume contraction during solidification

Level A Level B Area C

Superheated liquid metal filled to the top pf the mould Liquid shrinks on cooling to freezing temperature During L to S contraction, further redn. in volume Localized near top of the ingot (Freezes last)

Distance D

Solid metal pulls away from mould wall as it contracts

Casting Defects: Blow Holes

Balloon shaped cavities at or below the surface of the casting

Cause - High moisture or organic content of sand mould gives excessive steam or CO - Low permeability of mould due to excess clay content or excessive ramming

Casting Defects: Porosity

Very small gas holes uniformly dispersed through the entire casting Gas solubility more in liquid than solid Microporosity: Gas trapped within growing dendrites To reduce gas in the liquid metal - Keep minimum superheat - Vacuum melting or Vacuum degassing - Inert gas bubbling
SL

SS
Gas Solubility Liquid Solid. M.P.

Inclusions
Non-metallic or metallic phases in a metallic matrix Two Types
Exogenous - Derived from external causes - Slag, entrapped mould material and refractory - Macroscopic - Non-uniform distribution Indigenous - Inherent in molten metal treatment - Sulphides, Nitrides, Oxides (Al2O3, SiO2) - Microscopic - Uniformly distribution Iron Making: Reduction Process, Fe2O3 CO/C Fe

Steel Making: Oxidation C,S, P etc

High O in steel: Porosity, De-oxidation by Al, Si: Inclusions (Al2O3, SiO2)

Inclusion Rating in Steel

Four types of non-metallic inclusions: Thin & Heavy Type A: Sulphide

Type B: Alumina

Type C: Silicate

Type D: Globular Oxide

Casting Defects: Hot Tears

Caused by unequal shrinking of light and heavy sections of a casting as the metal cools

Casting Defects: Cold Shuts

Forms when molten metal meets the already solidified or relatively cold metal

Can also be formed by lack of fusion between the two intercepting surfaces of molten metal at different temperatures

Mechanical Working
Involves Plastic Deformation: Change in shape and size but no volume change

Hot working (Temp > Tre) & Cold Working (Temp < Tre)
Process Hot Working Cold Working

Forging Rolling Extrusion Drawing

Tungsten Working at 1000 C: Cold Working Lead Working at RT: Hot Working

Forging Defects
Bursts Laps

Hydrogen Flakes
Flow Lines

Forging Defects: Burst

Rupture caused by forging at improper temperature Can be internal or external

Forging Defects: Lap

It is a discontinuity caused by folding of metal in a thin plate on the surface of the forging

Improper matching of mating surfaces of the two forging dies

Forging Defects: Hydrogen Flakes

Randomly oriented internal thermal cracks in steel resulting from critical combination of stress and hydrogen content On an etched surface, they appear as short discontinuous cracks

Forging Defects: Improper Flow Lines

Patterns that reveal how the grain structure follows the direction of working in forging Flow lines refer to direction of inclusion deformation during forging. Flow lines should not cut the surface to avoid failures due to high HCF. These are revealed macro-etching Optimizing grain flow orientation maximizes mech. properties

Rolling Defects
Laminations Stringers Seams

Rolling Defects: Laminations

Defects with separation or weakness generally aligned parallel to the worked surface of the metal

May be a result of pipe, blister, seams, inclusions or segregations elongated and made directional by working

Rolling Defects: Stringers

Longer and thinner configuration of non-metallic inclusions aligned in the direction of working

Commonly the term is associated with oxide or sulphide inclusions in metals

Rolling Defects: Seams

Un-welded fold or lap that appears as a crack Results from a defect obtained in casting or working Always open to surface

Heat Treatment
Heating and Cooling operations applied to metals and alloys in solid state to obtain desired properties

Purpose - Mechanical properties: Strength Ductility - Corrosion Resistance - Dimensional Stability: Residual stress
H

Toughness

Heat Treatment Cycle: Min. Three Steps

Metallurgical characteristics controlling properties - Chemical Composition - Dislocation Density - Microstructure - Texture

Heat Treatment of Steels

Annealing

Normalizing
Hardening Tempering Martempering Austempering

Cold Work Anneal Cycle

Cold Working Recovery Recrystallization Grain Growth

Defects in Heat Treatment

Coarse Grain Quench Cracks Undesirable phase: Sensitization in Austenitic SS Embrittlement: Temper Embrittlement & Thermal Ageing Embrittlement

Quench Cracks
Cracks formed in steel as a result of tensile stresses produced during hardening HT (Austenite to Martensite Transformation)

Prevention: Increase hardenibility by alloying

Adopt Martempering or Austempering heat treatment

Grain Size
N = 2 n-1 , N: number of grains in an area of in2 at 100 X n: ASTM grain size number
ASTM GS No. 2 4 Grain Size (m) 160 80
Coarse

5
6 8

56
40 20
Fine

Effect of Grain Size on Material Property - Hall-Petch Equation: y = i + k d -1/2 - Cottrell Equation: f.K.d1/2 = . . - Grain size . Strength Toughness

DBTT

Sensitization in Austenitic Stainless Steels

Sensitization refers to Chromium Carbide precipitation with concomitant depletion of Cr to less than 12% making Austenitic Stainless Steel susceptible to IGC/IGSCC attack Sensitization is likely during Solution HT or Welding when SS is exposed to 450 800oC

TTS Diagram
Cr < 12% Cr23C6 (95% Cr) Matrix Cr 18%

Sensitized Non-sensitized

Intergranular Attack (IGC) attack in Austenitic Stainless Steels

IGC attack refers to localized corrosion along the grain boundaries Sensitized stainless steel prone to IGC/IGSCC attack when exposed to corrosive environment
SS 304 HAZ HAZ SS 321

ASTM Standard A262 Practice A to Practice E for detecting IGC susceptibility Severity of IGC attack expressed as depth of IGC

Defects in Fusion Welds

IIW Atlas: 83 weld discontinuities

6 Broad classes
- Cracks - Cavities - Solid Inclusions - Lack of fusion & Penetration - Imperfect Shape - Miscellaneous

Significance of Flaws

 Flaw type vs. Severity Critical flaw size

Flaw location vs. Severity

Flaw tolerance of materials Interaction between adjacent flaws NDT methods for detecting severe flaws

Basis of flaw acceptance in codes

Types of Flaws:
Planar Flaws (2D)
Lack of Fusion , Cracks

Volumetric Flaws (3D)

Porosity , Inclusions

Ductile vs Brittle Fracture

Plastic Constraint Factor Strength q= Notched flow stress Un-notched flow stress

BF
DF T.T Temperature

f o
T.TN

q.o
Temperature

Loading Rate

Flow Stress
Triaxial Stress Neutron Irradiation

Brittle Fracture

Effects of Notch:
Notch increases tendency to brittle fracture
By producing high local stress By introducing triaxial tensile stress By producing high local strain rate By producing high local strain hardening & cracking

Notch: Definite depth & root radius vs Crack: Only depth & vanishingly small radius

Critical Flaw Size:

Stress Concentration Factor (SCF) max = nom [1+2 sqrt.(D/)] 0, max Infinity Stress Intensity Factor (SIF: KI ) KI = . sqrt(a) Critical SIF= Fracture Toughness (KIC)
When

KI > KIC

Catastrophic Brittle Fracture

Fracture Toughness & Allowable Flaw Size

Stress

Fracture Toughness KIC

ac

Flaw Size

KIC

Stress

. a)1/2
Flaw Size

Material Property

Significance of Flaws in Performance of Engineering Components

Stress

KIC

aa

ac

Flaw Size

Designer needs an assurance that at no stage during the service life of component there is any flaw of the order of ac Allowable flaw size aa with adequate safety margin

Role of NDT is to detect flaw of size aa

Important Flaw Characteristics for Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Location
Surface Flaw

Sub-surface Flaw

Surface flaw more severe as compared to sub-surface flaw because of higher stress intensity associated with it Code provides guidelines on classification of flaw in to surface or subsurface, if it lies just below the surface of the component

Important Flaw Characteristics for Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Size KIC = . (. a) 1/2
Surface Flaw

a 2a
Sub-surface Flaw

Flaw size should never exceed the critical flaw size decided by the operating stress & fracture toughness, with adequate safety margin It refers to through wall dimension & length for crack like defects and area for laminations Most important flaw characteristics and also most difficult to predict accurately by conventional NDT methods

Important Flaw Characteristics for Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Orientation
Hoop Stress = PD / 2.T Axial Stress = PD / 4.T

Flaw perpendicular to maximum tensile stress more severe than the one oriented parallel to it For internally pressurized pipe, axial flaw more severe than circumferential flaw

Important Flaw Characteristics for Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Shape

Flaws with sharp tip like crack more severe than flaws with smooth surface like porosity

Small root radius leads to higher stress intensity

Important Flaw Characteristics for Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Proximity

If two flaws are very close, they influence the stress intensity associated with each other Two flaws shall be separated by the length of the longest flaws, or else they shall be considered together as a singe flaw including the sound region in between

Important Flaw Characteristics for Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Nature

Weld Flaw - Operator: Porosity, lack of fusion, slag inclusion, undercut - Metallurgical origin: Cold crack, Hot crack, laminar tearing Planar or Volumetric Flaw Planar flaw more severe than volumetric flaw

Flaw Tolerance of Materials

KIC KIC KIC

>

KIC

Stress

aC
Flaw Size

aC

FCC Crystal structure and fine grain size makes material more tolerant to flaws Effect of welding and environment needs consideration

Strengthening Mechanisms
Solid Solution Hardening - Substitutional : Cs - Interstitial : Ci Grain Refinement : y = i + k d
-1/2

Precipitation Hardening : = Gb / l

Composite : c = fVf + (1 Vf) m Strength

Ductility

Toughness Toughness

Flaw Tolerance

Fine grain size: Strength

NDT Methods for Characterizing Severe Flaws

Important Flaw Characteristics for Fitness-For-Service Assessment

Location
Surface or Sub-surface Length/ Area/ Though-thickness dimension

Size
Orientation Shape Proximity Nature

Flaw orientation w.r.t. Principal Stress

Smooth or Irregular or Sharp

Proximity of a flaw to other flaw(s) Planar Flaws severe than Volumetric

A good NDT should have high reliability for harmful flaws and provide maximum information on above flaw characteristics

NDT Methods for different Products

Product Casting Forging Plates Surface LPT / MPT LPT / MPT Volumetric RT UT UT

Tubes
Welds

LPT / MPT

ECT / UT
RT / UT

Radiography vs Ultrasonic Testing

Characteristics Presence Location (lateral) Location (Depth) RT Miss Planar Flaws (even large) Very Good No Information UT Miss Globular Flaws (small) Good Enough Good Enough

Size, Shape & Orientation Type

Very Good
Very Good

Very Poor
Very Poor

Leak Before Break

KIC = x .ac

ac
ac: Critical crack length

al

al : Crack length at leakage

If al < ac , then Leak Before Break Criteria is satisfied

If al > ac , then Break Before Leak

Engineering Critical Assessment: ECA- Codes and Guides

API RP 579 (2000): Recommended Practice for Fitness-for Service Assessment BS 7910 (1999): Guidance on Methods for Assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structure IIW / IIS-SST-1957-90: IIW Guidance on Assessment of Fitness-for-purpose of welded structure ASME B&PV Code Sec. XI: In-service Inspection of Nuclear Components

Stress Analysis

API RP 579 Assessment Approach

SIF KI

Flaw Size

Kr = KI / KMAT

KMAT

Flaw Size

Reference Stress ref

Lr = ref / YS

YS

Stress Analysis

Basis of Flaw Acceptance Standard in Codes

Good Workmanship Proven Service Experience Capability of NDT Method (Radiography)

Radiographic Examination of Welded Joints

Unacceptable Indications

Crack or incomplete fusion or penetration

Slag inclusion of length greater than
for t up to 1/3 t for t from to 2-1/4 for t over 2-1/4

Rounded Indications of diameter greater than - t or 5/32 (whichever is smaller) for t < 2 - 3/8 for t > 2

Economic Consequences of Arbitrary Acceptance Standards

Alyeska Pipeline Audit of Radiographs: 4000 defects Cost of repair: $ 52 M One repair of weld in a river crossing: $ 2.5 M

3 such defects accepted without repair

Analysis shoed none of the 4000 defects was affecting integrity based on FFS

A survey of Repairs (UK) on welds of Pressure Vessel

84% for Slag Inclusions 3% for Porosity 13% for Planar Defects Repair welds are made under conditions of high restraint and there is a risk that a harmless, but readily detectable defect, such as slag inclusion, will be replaced by a potential harmful crack, which is less easy to detect

Limitations of Codes
Specified Limits of defect size: Arbitrary

Materials Flaw Tolerance: Not Considered

Defect Location vs. Severity: Not Considered Different NDT Methods during different stages of inspection - RT during fabrication (IMI) - UT during PSI and ISI

Two-Tier Approach for Flaw Acceptance

Workmanship Standard (aw) Existing Std in code Quality Control Purpose Flaw < aw Accept Fitness-for- Service (FFS) Standard (af) Based on Fracture Mech. For Repair/Reject Assessment Flaw < af Accept Flaw > af Repair or Reject

Flaw > aw Assess for FFS

Case Studies

Spiral Cracks

Failure of Rocket Motor Casing during Hydro Test

Material : Maraging Steel (Grade 250) Dimension : 6.6 mm dia. X 1.25 cm wt Proof Pressure : 63.4 Kg/cm2 Failure Pressure : 38 Kg/cm2 Yield Strength : 16800 Kg/cm2 Membrane Stress at Failure : 7000 Kg/cm2
Failure Originated in a weld defect

Failed rocket motor casing pieces laid out in proper relation to each other:

Evaluation of a Defect in Circumferential Weld of Pressure Vessel

Material : Low Alloy Steel (125 mm thick) Tests: Mechanical Properties (TT & IT), Satisfactory Radiography: Using 6 MeV LINAC 2% sensitivity, satisfactory

Hydro Test: 10 C to 1.5 times designed stress, satisfactory

Evaluation of a Defect in Circumferential Weld of Pressure Vessel

UT for generating base-line data for ISI 185 mm long and 0.3-2mm wide defect at an angle to and 3 mm below the outer surface in circumferential weld Defect: Slag entrapment, treated as crack for Frac. Mech Ass. For Design and Proof Stress Conditions Safety Factor of more than 3 available, Defect accepted for service

Evaluation of a Defect in Circumferential Weld of Pressure Vessel

Sensitization Induced Corrosion Failures

Failure of Stainless Steel Equipment (685 cases, DU PONT, 1968-1971)

Mechanical (44.8%)

Corrosion (55.2%)

SCC Pitting IGC General Others

13.1% 7.9% 5.6% 15.2% 13.4%

Oxalic Acid Etch Test: Practice A

Screening Test Specimen is electro-etched for 1,5 min at 1A/cm2 Microscopic examination

Step
Dual Ditch

Sensitization Induced Corrosion Failures: IGSCC

Structural Integrity
Flaw Characteristics Location, Nature, Geometry

Size, Shape, Orientation

Stress Material Properties Residual & Applied

Microstructure & Mechanical Prop.

Application of NDT during Components Lifetime

Cradle In-Manufacture Inspection (IMI) - To detect processing discontinuities

Pre-Service Inspection (PSI) - To collect base line data for future inspections

In-Service Inspection (ISI)

- To monitor growth of existing flaws and initiation and growth of service-induced flaws
Grave

Engineering Critical
Material Prop.

- YS, KIC

Assessment

Structural Integrity
Flaw Characteristics - Type - Location - Geometry (size, shape, orient.) Stress - Applied - Residual Capability of Equipments Effectiveness of Procedure

NDT Results

Competence of Operators

Importance of Basic Metallurgy for NDT Professionals

No engineering structure is free from flaws. Flaw tolerance depends on metallurgical characteristics Flaw characteristics (Location, Size, Shape, Orientation & Nature depends on nature of Material Processing Knowing Flaw Characteristics helps in - Selection of appropriate NDT method - Selection of test parameters - Interpretation of Relevant / False indications

Misconceptions regarding NDT

No defects found & reported Means No defects in the component Defects measured as 5mm means that defect actually is 5mm If NDT reports defect growth or nongrowth then this is actually the case No NDT technique capable of detecting all defects (Uncertainty in detection) Uncertainty in Defect sizing by NDT Comparison of two sizing has their own errors

100% Inspection Coverage

Hard copy results cant lie

Not necessarily 100% of component inspected

Hard copy results only as good as tech. & data used to produce them.

NDT as per National /Int. standard always appropriate.

Standards only relevant to specific circumstances & include knowledge at the time of development.NDT reqs. need to be checked against the Std. to see its relevance to particular situation.