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Lecturer in Education M.C.T. Training College Malappuram www.sathitech.blogspot.com www.mctinfotech.blog.com sathikalanilayam@gmail.com Mob : 09562253564

Satheesh

Statistics in Education

Statistics - Definition
statistics may be defined as the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data - Croxten & Cowden

Statistics
The term Statistics seems to have derived from the Latin word status or Italian word statista or the German word statistik. Each of which means Political state

Why Statistics in Education ?

Data Collection

Presentation (Tabulation)

Analysis

Interpretation

NATURE OF DATA
Continuous

discrete

Height Weight temperature

Family size Enrolment of children

SCORING & TABULATION OF SCORES

Frequency Distribution Frequency distribution is an important method of condensing and presenting data. This representation is also called Frequency Table

Discrete frequency distribution

Continuous (grouped) frequency distribution

Discrete frequency distribution

It is a frequency distribution in which we make an array by listing all the values occurring in the series and noting the number of times each value occurs.

The marks obtained by 25 students of a class in Mathematics, out of 10 marks are as followsconstruct a Discrete frequency distribution
MARKS TALLY No. OF STUDENTS

1, 7, 6, 5, 9 10, 5, 6, 8, 2

7, 8, 3, 8, 3
1, 4, 4, 5,6 4, 3, 2, 6, 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TOTAL

2 2 3 3 3 4 3 3 1 1
25

Continuous (Grouped) Frequency Distribution

Continuous (Grouped) Frequency Distribution is a table in which the data are grouped into different classes and the number of observations falls in each class are noted.

Construct a Continuous frequency distribution for the following set of observations

70, 45, 33, 64, 50 25, 65, 75, 30, 20 MARKS TALLY No. OF STUDENTS

20 29 30 39

III
IIII

3
5

55, 60, 65, 58, 52

36, 45, 42, 35, 40 51, 47, 39, 61, 53 59, 49, 41, 20, 55 42, 53, 78, 65, 45

40 49 IIII IIII II

12
10 7

IIII IIII 60 69 IIII II

70 - 79

50 -59

III

3
40

49, 64, 52, 48, 46

TOTAL

TYPES OF CLASSES
Inclusive Classes 0 9 10 19 20 29 30 39 40 49
Lower limit
Included

Exclusive Classes 0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50
Lower limit
Included

Upper limit
Included

Upper limit NOT

Included

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Cumulative frequency Distribution is a table which gives how many observations are lying below or above a particular value

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION LESS THAN CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION GREATER THAN CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

LESS THAN CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Less than cumulative frequency distribution is a table which gives the number of observations falling below the upper limit of a class

Construct Less than Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Class 05 Frequency 4

5 10 10 15
15 20 20 25

7 12
5 2

Answer
Class Frequency
<CF

05 5 10 10 15 15 20 20 25

4 7 12 5 2

4
(4+7) (4+7+12) (4+7+12+5) (4+7+12+5+2) 11 23 28 30

Less than Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Greater than Cumulative frequency distribution

greater than Cumulative frequency distribution is table which gives the number of observations lying above the lower limit of the class

Construct Greater than Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Class 05 Frequency 4

5 10 10 15
15 20 20 25

7 12
5 2

Answer
Class Frequency
>CF

05 5 10 10 15 15 20 20 25

4 7 12 5 2

(4+7+12+5+2)
(7+12+5+2) (12+5+2) (5+2)

30
26 19 7 2

Greater than Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Class Construction Please remember these points.

Class interval should be uniform through out. As far as possible class interval should be multiple of 5 As far as possible the number of classes should be vary from 4 to 20 Class should be mutually exclusive. As far as possible open-end classes should be avoided

Rule for determining the number of classes

We have a rule for determining the number of classes known as Sturges rule, It is given by

k = 1 + 3.22 log N,
k - number of classes
N is the total observations

Graphical and Diagrammatic representation of data

The following are commonly used graphs and Diagrams.
Histogram Frequency Polygon Frequency Curve Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive)
Less than Cumulative Frequency Curve (Less than Ogive) Greater than Cumulative Frequency Curve (Greater than Ogive)

Pie Diagram (Sector Diagram) Bar Diagram

Histogram
Graphical representation of continuous (Grouped) frequency distribution It is a graph including vertical rectangles with no space between the rectangles. The class interval taken along the horizontal axis (X axis) and the respective class frequencies are taken on the vertical axis (Y axis) using suitable scales of each classes.

 For each class a rectangle is drawn with base as width of the class and height as proportional to the class frequency.
The area of each rectangle will be proportional to or equal to respective frequencies of the class

The total area of the histogram will be proportional or equal to the total frequency of the distribution.

Histogram
Class 0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 Frequency 4 10 21 9 4

50 60 Total

2 50
10 20 30 40 50 60

Bar Diagram
It is graphical representation of the data which can be divided into different categories. These diagrams are generally drawn in the shape of horizontal or vertical bars.
The bars should be of equal breadth and the height of the bars should be proportional to the magnitude of each quantity. Leave equal space between the bars.

Draw simple bar diagram

Category Distinction No. of Students 20

No.of Students

First class Second class

Third class Failure Total

40 50
45 25 180

Frequency Polygon
It is a graphical representation of continuous frequency distribution It can be constructed by drawing Histogram or directly plotting the points To draw Frequency Polygon by drawing Histogram, join the mid-points of the top of the rectangles of the Histogram using straight lines

 Frequency Polygon can also drawn by joining the consecutive points, plotted by taking the mid-points of the classes on X-axis and corresponding frequencies on Y-axis. The end points are extended at each end and to join the X-axis. the total area under the Frequency Polygon is equal to or proportional to (numerically) the total frequency of the given distribution.

Construct Frequency Polygon for the following frequency distribution

Class
0 10

Frequency
4

10 20
20 30

10
21

30 40
40 50 50 60

9
4 2

Total

50

First Method

Second Method

Third Method

Frequency Curve
It is a graphical representation of continuous frequency distribution It can be constructed by drawing Histogram or directly plotting the points To draw Frequency curve by drawing Histogram, join the mid-points of the top of the rectangles of the Histogram using smooth curve by free hand method

 Frequency curve can also drawn by joining the consecutive points, plotted by taking the mid-points of the classes on X-axis and corresponding frequencies on Y-axis. The end points are extended at each end and to join the X-axis. The total area under the Frequency Curve is equal to or proportional to (numerically) the total frequency of the given distribution.

Construct Frequency Curve for the following frequency distribution

Class
0 10
10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60

Frequency
4
10 21 9 4 2

Total

50

First Method

Second Method

Third Method

Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive)

It is the graphical representation of cumulative Frequency Distribution Two types
a). Less than Cumulative Frequency Curve (Less than Ogive) b). Greater than Cumulative Frequency Curve (Greater than Ogive)

Less than Cumulative Frequency Curve (Less than Ogive)

It is the graphical representation of Less than Cumulative Frequency distribution. Less than Cumulative Frequency Curve is drawn by joining smoothly the points obtained by plotting the upper limit of the actual classes against their Less than cumulative Frequencies.

Construct Less than Cumulative Frequency Curve for the following frequency distribution
Class 0 10 10 20 20 30 Frequency <CF 5 12 28 5 17 45

30 40
40 50 50 60

40
21 10

85
106 116

60 - 70

120

Less than Cumulative Frequency Curve

Greater than Cumulative Frequency Curve (Greater than Ogive)

It is the graphical representation of Greater than Cumulative Frequency distribution. Greater than Cumulative Frequency Curve is drawn by joining smoothly the points obtained by plotting the Lower limit of the actual classes against their Greater than cumulative Frequencies.

Construct Greater than Cumulative Frequency Curve for the following frequency distribution
Class 0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60 - 70 Frequency >CF 5 12 28 40 21 10 4 120 115 103 75 35 14 4

Greater than Cumulative Frequency Curve

Pie Diagram
Pie diagram consist of circle whose area proportional to the magnitude of the variable they present The component part of the variable represented by means of sectors of the circle The area of the sector proportional to the frequencies of the component parts of the variable. If A1 and A2 are the total magnitude of the two variables, to represent the data by means of Pie diagram, draw two circles with radius r1 and r2 given by

Draw Pie Diagram for the following data

Category Distinction First class Second class No. of Students 20 40 50

Third class
Failure

45
25

Category
Distinction First class

No. of Students 20 40

Angle of the Sector

Second class
Third class Failure Total

50
45 25 180 360
500

Assignment
Diagrammatic and Graphic representation of Data - Merits and Limitations

Last Date: 12.12.2011

Analysis & Interpretation of Data

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

When we collected data from a sample of study, the majority of scores in that collected data always show a tendency to be closer the central value. This phenomenon is called central tendency. The value of the point around which scores tend to cluster is called Measures of Central Tendency.

Measures of Central Tendency

Arithmetic Mean Median Mode

MODE

ARITHMETIC MEAN
Case I: Ungrouped Data (Discrete data)
Let x1, x2, x3, ..xn are N observations
Sum of the observations Then A.M (X) = Total No. of observations

x1+x2+x3+xn = N

A.M=

Sx
N

Case II: Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

If x1, x2, x3, .xn are observations and f1, f2, f3, ..fn then A.M is given by

A.M =

f1x1+f2x2+f3x3+fnxn
f1+f2+f3+fn

S fx A.M =
Sf

Calculate A.M of the following data

Observations 5 Frequency 3

x
5

f
3

fx
15

6 7 8 9
TOTAL

8 12 10 7

6
7 8 9

8
12 10 7

48
84 80 63
fx =290

40

N = 40

S fx
A.M =

290
=

Sf

40

= 7.25

Home work
Observations Frequency

15 16 17 18 19
TOTAL

5 10 14 12 9

50

Case III: Grouped Frequency Distribution

Two Methods
Direct Method Assumed Mean Method

Case III: Grouped Frequency Distribution

Direct Method
A.M =

x - Mid-value of classes f - Frequency N - Total frequency

Calculate A.M
Class f Class
0 - 10 10 20 20 - 30

f
3 12 20

mid-value (x)

fx
15 180 500

0 - 10 3 10 20 12 20 - 30 20 30 - 40 10 40 - 50 5
TOTAL

5 15 25

30 - 40
40 - 50

10
5 N=50

35
45

350
225

50

S fx = 1270

A.M =

1270 = = 25.4 50

Home work
Class
0-9 10 19 20 - 29 30 - 39

f
3 10 13 9

40 - 49
TOTAL

5
40

Assumed Mean Method

A.M (X) =A + A- Assumed Mean d- deviations , d = x Mid-value of classes f Frequency N- Total frequency c class width

Calculate A.M
Class
0 - 10 10 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50
TOTAL

f
3 12 20 10 5
50

Answer
Class
0 - 10 10 20
20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50

f
3 12
20 10 5 N=50

mid-value (x)
5 15

d
-2 -1
0 1 2

fd
-6 -12
0 10 10

25 - A
35 45

=2
= 25 +

A.M (X) =A+

= 25.4

Arithmetic Mean Merits

It is rigidly defined AM is easy to understand Simple to calculate Based on all observations It is capable for further algebraic treatment. Used for group comparison

Arithmetic Mean Demerits

AM is affected by extreme values AM may lead to wrong conclusion if the figures from which it is computed are not known. AM cant be calculated for a distribution having open end classes.

MEDIAN
Median is defined as the middle most observation when the observations are arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude.

CALCULATION OF MEDIAN
Discrete Data & Discrete Frequency

Distribution Case I: N is odd

Median = observation when the data are arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude

 Calculate Median: 8, 12, 16, 10, 9, 6, 17, 20, 25 Data in Ascending order of magnitude: 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 16, 17, 20, 25 Here N = 9, Then Median = observation = 5th observation =

12

Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

Calculate Median
Observation frequency Here N = 41

5
6 7 8 9

3
8 12 10 8 = = Observation

Median =

Observation

Total

41

Case II: N is even

Median =Average of observation and observation when the data are arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude. Median =

Calculate Median: 30, 26, 42, 28, 35, 20, 32, 50

Calculate Median: 30, 26, 42, 28, 35, 20, 32, 50

Data in Ascending order of magnitude: 20, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 42, 50 Here N = 8 Median = = = = 31

Median : Grouped (Contiguous) Frequency Distribution

Median =lm + ( lm ) c

Actual lower limit of Median Class (Median Class Class in which ( observation falls N Total Frequency cfm Cumulative frequency Up to Median Class fm frequency of Median Class c Class interval

Calculate Median
Class 05 5 10 10 15 15 20 20 25 Total Frequency 5 10 15 12 8 50

Answer
Class 05 5 10
Median Class

Frequency 5 10

<CF 5 15

Here lm = 10, N = 50 cfm = 15 fm = 15, c = 5

10 15 15 20
25 25

15 12
8

30 42
50

Median = lm + (
= 10 + (

) c

) 5 ) 5

Total

50
= 10 + ( = 13.33

Graphical Determination of Median Method : 1

Steps:
Draw Less than or Greater than Ogive. Locate N/2 on the Y Axis At N/2 draw a perpendicular to the Y Axis and extent it to meet the Ogive From that point of intersection draw a perpendicular to the X Axis The point at which the perpendicular meets the XAxis will be the Median.
N

N/2

Median

Graphical Determination of Median Method : 2

Steps:
Draw Less than and Greater than Ogive simultaneously Draw perpendicular from the point of intersection to the X Axis The point at which the perpendicular meets the X- Axis will be the Median.

Median

Median Merits
It is rigidly defined It is easy to understand Simple to calculate It can be located by mere inspection It is not affected by extreme values It can be calculated for a distribution having open end classes It can be determined graphically.

Median demerits
It is not based on all observations Median is a non-algebric measure and hence not suitable for further algebric treatment It is cant be used for computing other statistical measures such as Standard Deviation, Coefficient of correlation etc. When there are wide variations between the values of different scores, a Median may not be representative of the distribution.

MODE
Mode is the value of the variable which occurs most frequently.
In certain cases there may be Two or Three Modes in a distribution. When there are Two Modes we call it Bi-Modal Distribution If there are Three Modes, we call it Tri-Modal Distribution.

Calculation of Mode
Discrete Distribution
Calculate Mode
Observation
5 6 7 8 9 Total

frequency
3 8 12 10 8 41

Mode = 7

Continuous Distribution
Mode =lm + (
lm
f1

) c

f2
c

Actual lower limit of Modal Class (Modal Class Class having maximum frequency Frequency of the class just below the Modal Class Frequency of the class just above the Modal Class Class interval

Calculate Mode
Class 80 84 75 79 70 74 65 69 60 64 55 59 50 54 45 40 Frequency 4 8 8 12 9 7 5 3 f1 f2 Modal Class

Here lm = 64.5 f1 = 9 f2 = 8 C= 5
Mode = lm + ( ) c

=64.5 + ( = 66.9

)5

Mode Merits
Easy to locate Not affected by extreme values Can calculate the Mode for the distribution having open-end classes, if open-end classes have less frequency It is useful in business matters.

Mode demerits
It is not based on all observations It is not capable for further algebric treatment A slight change in the distribution may extensively disturb the Mode As there be 2 or 3 modal values, it becomes impossible to set a definite value of a Mode.

Do we Need another Statistical

Measures?

Consider the Marks of two Groups Group 1 8, 12, 11, 12, 10, 8, 9, 11, 12, 10, 8, 10, 9, 10, 12, 8, 10, 9, 10, 11 Mean = 10 Group 1 15, 2, 8, 12, 4, 17, 20, 6, 2, 18, 16, 0, 3, 9, 6, 10, 15, 17, 9, 11 Mean = 10

If we compare two groups, merely on the basis of the Arithmetic Mean, there is a possibility of being mislead to incorrect judgment

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
(MEASURES OF VARIABILITY)

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
The statistical measures used to determine the extent of dispersion of the scores from the central value (Arithmetic Mean) of the distribution are known as Measures of Dispersion Measures of Dispersion measures the spreading of observations from the central value of the distribution.

Commonly used Measures of Dispersion are:

Standard Deviation

Mean Deviation Range

Quartile Deviation

Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation is the square root of the average of the squares of the deviations of the scores taken from the mean. SD denoted by the symbol (sigma).

Calculation of Standard Deviation Steps

Find the Arithmetic Mean of the given data. Find the deviations from Arithmetic Mean of scores. Find the average of squares of deviations taken from the Mean. Find the square root of the average of squares of deviations.

Calculation of SD - Discrete Series

Let x1, x2, x3, ..xn are N observations

Case I: Discrete Data

Calculate Standard Deviation: 35, 49, 32, 45, 39

S.D

Consider the Marks of two Groups Group 1 8, 12, 11, 12, 10, 8, 9, 11, 12, 10, 8, 10, 9, 10, 12, 8, 10, 9, 10, 11 Mean = 10 Group 1 15, 2, 8, 12, 4, 17, 20, 6, 2, 18, 16, 0, 3, 9, 6, 10, 15, 17, 9, 11 Mean = 10

S.D = 1.38

S.D = 5.93

Ungrouped Distribution

Calculate Standard Deviation

Score 22 27 32 37 42 47 Frequency 5 10 25 30 20 10 N=100

Answer

S.D-Continuous Frequency Distribution

Calculate SD
Score Frequency 20 24 5 25 29 10 30 34 25 35 39 30 40 44 20 45 - 49 10 N=100

S.D =

Answer

For a large distribution, Short-cut method (Assumed Mean Method) can be used to calculate Standard Deviation

Calculate Standard Deviation Using Assumed Mean Method

class
45 - 49 40 - 44 35 - 39 30 - 34 25 - 29 20 - 24 15 - 19 10 - 14 5-9

f
2 3 2 6 8 8 7 5 9 N = 50

Answer
class
45 - 49 40 - 44 35 - 39 30 - 34 25 - 29 20 - 24 15 - 19 10 - 14 5-9

f
2 3 2 6 8 8 7 5 9 N = 50

x
47 42 37 32 27 22 17 12 7

d
5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3

d2
25 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

fd
10 12 6 12 8 0 -7 -10 -27 fd = 4

fd2
50 48 18 24 8 0 7 20 81 fd2 = 256

MEAN DEVIATION
(AVERAGE DEVIATION) Mean Deviation is the average of the deviations of the scores taken from the Mean
It may be calculated by taking the deviations of each of the scores from the mean and finds the average of these scores. Deviations may ve or +ve, so take absolute value of deviations.

Calculation of MEAN DEVIATION

Discrete Data

Calculate Mean Deviation

8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22

Answer
= 15
Score (x) 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

7 5 3 1 1 3 7 8

Discrete Distribution

Calculate Mean Deviation

Score (x) f 5 10 25 30 20 10

22 27 32 37 42 47

Answer
Score (x) 22 27 32 37 42 47 f 5 10 25 30 20 10 fx 110 270 800 1110 840 470

14 19 4 1 6 11

70 90 100 30 120 110

AM =

= 3600 100

= 36

N=100 fx =3600

=520

Continuous Distribution

Calculate Mean Deviation

Score (x) 20 - 24 25 29 30 34 35 39 40 44 45 - 49 f 5 10 25 30 20 10

Answer
Class 20 - 24 25 29 30 34 35 39 40 44 45 - 49 Score (x) 22 27 32 37 42 47 f 5 10 25 30 20 10 fx 110 270 800 1110 840 470 fx =3600 14 19 4 1 6 11 70 90 100 30 120 110
AM =

= 3600 100

= 36

N=100

=520

QUARTILE DEVIATION (SEMI INTER QUARTILE RANGE)

The quartile deviation is half the difference between the upper and lower quartiles in a distribution.

Quartile: Any of three points that divide an ordered distribution into four parts each containing one quarter of the scores.

 Lower Quartile (first quartile) Q1: first point of division of observations which have been grouped into four equal-sized sets based on their statistical rank. Upper Quartile (Third quartile) Q3: Third point of division of observations which have been grouped into four equal-sized sets based on their statistical rank. Second Quartile Q2: Second point of division of observations which have been grouped into four equal-sized sets based on their statistical rank. Second Quartile is called Median

Continuous Distribution
Class 30 35 Frequency 10

35 40
40 45 45 50

16
18 27

50 55
55 60 60 65

18
8 3

Answer
Class Frequency <CF

30 35
Q1 Class 35 40

10
16

10
26

40 45
45 50
Q3Class 50 55

18
27

44
71

18
8

89
97

55 60

60 65

100

.68

 Range is the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a Distribution

RANGE

Range (R) = H L H Highest Value L Lowest Value

find Range 53, 51, 70, 45, 60, 62, 40, 53, 71, 55 Range (R) = H L = 71 40 = 31

Discrete Distribution
Observation frequency 5 3 6 8 7 12 8 10 9 8 Total 41

Range (R) = H L

=9-5

=4

continuous distribution
In a continuous distribution, Range is the difference between the upper limit of the highest class and lower limit of the lowest class

Class
10 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50

Frequency
12 20 10 5

Range (R) = H L

= 50 - 10 = 40

CORRELATION
Correlation may be defined as the relationship between two variables. There are three types of correlation Positive correlation Negative correlation Zero correlation

 Positive correlation: When the first variable

increase or decrease, the other variable also increases or decrease respectively, then the relationship between this two variables are said to be in Positive correlation.

Eg: Intelligent and Achievement

 Negative correlation: When the first variable

increase or decrease, the other variable decrease or increases respectively, then the relationship between this two variables are said to be in Negative correlation.

Eg: Time spend to practice and Number of

typing error

 Zero correlation: if there is no relationship

between two variables, then the relationship between this variable are said to be in Zero correlation.

Eg: Body weight and Intelligent

COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION
The ratio indicating the degree of relationship between two related variables is called the coefficient of correlation.

 It indicates the nature of the relationship between two variables. It predicts the value of one variable given the value of another related variable. It helps to ascertain the traits and capacities of pupils.

Use of Coefficient of Correlation

It helps to determine the validity of a test. It helps to determine the reliability of a test. It can be used to ascertain the degree of the objectivity of a test. It can answer the validity arguments for or against a statement.

Properties of Correlation
For a perfect positive correlation, the Coefficient of Correlation is +1 and for a perfect Negative correlation, the Coefficient of Correlation will be -1. Perfect positive or Negative correlation is possible only in Physical Science. In a Social Science like Education, the correlation between two variables will lie within the limit +1 and -1 Positive correlation varies from 0 to +1 and Negative correlation varies from 0 to -1 Zero correlation indicates that there is no consistent relationship between two variables.

Calculation of Correlation Coefficient

There are two important techniques for calculating Correlation coefficient
Rank Correlation Product Moment Correlation

Rank Correlation
Spearman who for the first time measures the extent of correlation between two set of scores by the method of Rank Difference

Find Rank Correlation Coefficient

Name of Students Nikhil Santhosh John Jenna Score in Maths 45 53 67 40 Score in Physics 68 76 70 64

Gopal
Mohammed

35
50

54
66

Answer
Name of Students Score in Maths Score in Physics Rank in Maths (R1) Rank in Physics (R2) Rank Difference

(D=
1
1 1 0 0 1

D2
1
1 1 0 0 1

Nikhil
Santhosh John Jenna Gopal Mohammed

45
53 67 40 35 50

68
76 70 64 54 66

4
2 1 5 6 3

3
1 2 5 6 4

D2=4 Here the correlation is found to be Positive and High

Product Moment Correlation

Karl Pearson devised formula for the calculation of Product Moment Correlation coefficient

Find Product Moment Correlation coefficient

Height of Father(h1) 65 66 67 67 68 69 70 72 Height of Son (h2) 67 68 65 68 72 72 69 71

Answer
Height of Father(h1) 65 66 67 67 68 69 70 72 h1=544 Height of Son (h2) 67 68 65 68 72 72 69 71 h2=552 deviation Deviation from Mean from Mean x y -3 -2 -2 -1 -1 -4 -1 -1 0 3 1 3 2 0 4 2 x2 9 4 1 1 0 1 4 16 x2=36 y2 xy 4 6 1 2 16 4 1 1 9 0 9 3 0 0 4 8 y2=44 xy =24

Positive correlation between Height

of Father and Height of Son

Product Moment Correlation coefficient Short-cut Method

Product Moment Correlation coefficient

r=

x, y : first set of scores and the second set of scores N : Number of scores in a set

Find Product Moment Correlation coefficient

students A B C D E F G H I J

Mark Test1 (x) 8 6 4 7 3 6 5 4 5 6

Mark Test2 (y) 9 7 3 6 5 6 5 5 4 5

Answer
students

A B C D E F G H I J

mark Test1 (x) 8 6 4 7 3 6 5 4 5 6 x =54

Mark Test2 (y) 9 7 3 6 5 6 5 5 4 5 y =55

x2

y2

xy

64 36 16 49 9 36 25 16 25 36 x2 = 312

81 49 9 36 25 36 25 25 16 25 y2 = 312

72 42 12 42 15 36 25 20 20 30 xy = 314

= 0.76

Correlation is Positive and High

Normal Probability Curve

The normal probability curve is curve that graphically represents a Normal Distribution. In a Normal Distribution, when the scores are arranged in the order of magnitude, those at the centre will have the maximum frequency. The frequencies will gradually go on decreasing towards the right and left of the score at the centre. Because of this property, the curve representing a normal distribution will show symmetry on either side of its central axis. Hence it will be in bell-shaped

 These special features of the Normal Distribution will be seen in the dispersion of scores regarding natural phenomena as intelligence, height, weight etc. in a population. This characteristic of Normal Distribution is found to be true to a great extent with regard to achievement scores of a well conducted examination, if the number taking the examination is sufficiently large. Hence properties of Normal Distribution and Normal Distribution curve are of great importance in the study of group and their characteristics with respect to given variables.

Properties of Normal Probability Curve

It is bell-shaped. This means that its peak is in the middle. It is symmetrical. If a perpendicular is drawn from the peak to X-axis, this will divide the whole area of the curve into two equal parts. The majority of scores will show a tendency to cluster around the centre. On either side of the central axis the frequencies of scores will go on reducing, these being least at the two ends.

 All the three Measures of Central Tendency, viz Mean, Median, and Mode of a normal curve coincide, that is, they are all equal. The first and third quartiles are equidistant from the median. The ordinate at the mean is the highest. The height of other ordinates at various sigma distances from the mean are also in fixed relationship with the height of the mean ordinate. The curve will gradually go on the nearer to the base line, but it will never meat the base line. For practical purpose, the curve may be taken to end at points -3 to +3 distance from the mean, because this region will cover almost 100% of the cases. Between -1 and -1, there are 68.26% of the frequencies Between -2 and -2, there are 95.44% of the frequencies Between -1 and -1, there are 99.73% of the frequencies

I can prove anything by Statistics except the truth -George Canning