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Key Knowledge
Desalination
including the principles of distillation
Which of these concepts did we cover last term? Which of these concepts are you still unsure about?
Latent heat Melting and boiling temperature Density Specific heat capacity Solubility
Latent Heat
Latent heat is the amount of energy required to change the state of a given about of substance. The latent heat of fusion of water (6.02 kJ mol-1) is the amount of energy needed to change a fixed amount of water from a solid to a liquid at 00C. The latent heat of vaporisation of water (40.7 kJ mol1) is the amount of energy needed to change a fixed amount of water from a liquid to a gas at 1000C.
The higher the latent heat of a substance, the greater the amount of energy it needs when it changes phases. Water has high latent heat values compared to substances of a similar size. Why do you think this is the case?
Due to the stronger intermolecular forces between its molecules in the solid and liquid states.
In comparison to a similar molecular weight non-polar molecule more heat is required to enable the molecules to break apart. This is because the molecules need to gain sufficient kinetic energy to break free of the hydrogen bonds between water molecules rather than weaker dispersion forces for a non-polar molecule.
Density
The density of water varies depending on which physical state it is in. Water expands when it freezes Water expands when frozen. It is less dense as a solid than as a liquid phase. Water expands when frozen due to H-bonding In ice, the hydrogen bonds form a complete network.
High Solubility
Water dissolves many other substances
Waters H-bonds give it a strong attraction to other polar and charged molecules. When substances such as sugar and alcohol dissolve in water they form Hbonds with the water When ionic substances such as salt dissolve in water each ion is surrounded by water molecules.
For each of the pictures below demonstrates a property of water. Identify the property and explain it in terms of the bonding present.
Summary Properties of Water High latent heat High specific heat capacity Less dense as a solid than as a liquid Relatively high melting and boiling point Good ability to dissolve other substances Hydrogen bonding present between molecules.
Solubility
Water is sometimes know as the universal solvent because it dissolves so many different substances.
Solubility measures the extent to which a solute can dissolve in a solvent In general a polar solvent will dissolve a polar solute and a non-polar substance will dissolve in a nonpolar solvent.
Solubility
When one substance (solute) dissolves in another (solvent), the following processes occur:
The particles of the solute are separated from one another The particles of the solvent are separated from one another The solute and solvent particles attract one another.
A solute will dissolve if the attraction between the solute and solvent particles is strong enough to compete with the solute-solute and solvent-solvent intermolecular forces. Substances that dissolve readily in water have ionic or polar covalent bonding. They fall into the following groups:
1. Polar covalent compounds that can form hydrogen bonds with water. 2. Polar covalent compounds that ionise 3. Ionic compounds
Dissolving Process
Solution Terminology
Saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute for the volume of solution at a particular temperature Unsaturated solution contains less than the maximum amount of solute for the volume of solution at a particular temperature. Supersaturated solution can be prepared by slowly cooling a saturated solution so that the solution contains more solute than it normally would at that temperature. Aqueous solutions water samples containing dissolved substances
The more polar a molecule the more likely it is to dissolve in water. For example Vitamin C is soluble in water while Vitamin A is insoluble. What does this mean in terms
of nutrition? What types of food will be a good source of Vitamin A? What types of food will be a good source of Vitamin C?
Vitamin C
Vitamin A
2. Polar covalent molecular compounds that ionise compounds contain covalent bonds that are so Some
highly polarised they break when the compound is placed bonds break because of the electrostatic These in water. attraction between the solute molecules and water molecules. This hydrolysis process is known as ionisation. For example: Hydrochloric acid in
water
The hydrogen-chlorine bond breaks and both bonding electrons go with the chlorine atom. The H+ forms a covalent bond with a water molecule. Two ions are produced in this process Cl- and the hydronium ion H 3 O+ .
The HCl molecules have ionised in water. The chloride ions and hydronium ions are referred to as hydrated ions because they are surrounded by water molecules.
2. Summary
When a polar covalent molecular substance ionises in water: Polar covalent bonds within molecules are broken, producing hydrogen ions and anions A hydronium ion forms. Ion-dipole attractions are formed between the newly formed ions and the polar water molecules.
3. Ionic Compounds
When an ionic solid dissolves in water: Ionic bonds within the solid are broken Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are broken Ion-dipole attractions between the ions and the polar water molecules are formed
3. Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are made up of positive and negative ions. When placed in water the negative ions are attracted towards the positive end of the water molecules and the positive ions are attracted towards the negative end of the water molecules.
When ions are surrounded by water molecules they are called hydrated ions When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the cations and anions are separated from one another and the process is known as dissociation.
1. Dissolving Ionic Compounds Animation 2. Dissolving salt movie
Dissociation Equation
The dissociation of sodium chloride in water can be represented by the equation:
Not all ionic substances are soluble. For insoluble ionic substances, the energy required to separate the ions from the lattice is much greater than the energy released when the ions are hydrated.
Predicting Solubility Tutorial Use the Flash Version
Questions
Use the rules for solubility to decide which of the following substances would be soluble in water: (a) potassium nitrite (b) sodium chloride (c) lead sulfate (d) calcium carbonate (e) ammonium hydroxide (f) copper(II) sulfide.
Polar gases will dissolve in water easily, eg. ammonia gas, NH3.
Gases such as oxygen and nitrogen are non-polar and do not easily dissolve in water.
Solubilities of selected gases in water. The units are very small, millimoles (mmol) per
Question
Calculate the percentage of oxygen that would be lost from a pond, saturated with oxygen if the temperature of the water in the pond rose from 0 to 20 degrees.
A precipitate is the solid formed when two solutions are mixed together. In a precipitation reaction, ions from the first reactant swap with ions from the second reactant to form new combinations, one of which is insoluble.
Full chemical equation Ionic Equation
When the ions of both solutions come into contact a white precipitate of AgCl is formed.
The net ionic equation does not include the spectator ions, Na+ and NO3-; these remain unchanged and dissolved in solution (as if sitting on the sidelines watching).
Online Tutorials
Precipitation Reactions Exercise Exercises for identifying spectator ions and precipitates http://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/net_ionic_ rxns/net_ionic_rxns.html
Solubility Curves
The solubility of a substance in water depends on temperature. Most solids are more soluble as temperature increases A solubility curve is a graph of solubility (g per 100 g water) versus temperature.
Solubility curves
Saturated
Supersaturated
Unsaturated
Solubility curves
Any point on a line represents a saturated solution. In a saturated solution, the solvent contains the maximum amount of solute.
Example At 90oC, 30 g of NaCl(s) in 100g H2O(l) represent an unsaturated solution. 10 g of NaCl(s) have to be added to make the solution saturated.
Solubility curves
Any point above a line represents a supersaturated solution.
In a supersaturated solution, the solvent contains more than the maximum amount of solute. A supersaturated solution is very unstable and the amount in excess can precipitate or crystallize.
Example At 90oC, 50 g of NaCl(s) in 100g H2O(l) represent a supersaturated solution. Eventually, 10 g of NaCl(s) will precipitate.
1. Example for Reading the Graph At 38 C the solubility of copper sulphate, CuSO4, is:
2. Example for Using the Graph How much potassium nitrate will dissolve in 20g of water at 34 C?
Ans:
At 34 C the solubility of KNO3 is 52g per 100g of water. 52/100 = unknown/20 52/100 * 20 = 10.4 g will dissolve in 20 g of water at 340C
3. Example for Using the Graph At 25 C 6.9g of copper sulphate dissolved in 30g of water, what is its solubility in g/100cm3 of water?
Ans :
6.9/30 = x/100 6.9/30 * 100 = 23 g of CuSO4 will dissolve in 100 cm3 of water Check on graph, just less than 23g/100g water
4. Example for Using the Graph 200 cm3 of saturated copper sulphate solution was prepared at 90C. What mass of copper sulphate crystals form if the solution was cooled to 20C?
Ans :
Solubility of CuSO4 at 90C is 67g/100g and at 20oC 21g/100g. Therefore, mass of crystals formed = 67 - 21 = 46g (for 100 cm3). However, 200 cm3 of solution was prepared, so total mass of copper sulphate crystallised = 2 x 46 = 92g
Activities
Concentration
Questions on g/L
Calculate the concentration (g/L) when 12 g is dissolved into 2.5 L = 12/2.5 = 4.8 g/L 8 g is dissolved in 750 mL = 8/0.75 = 10.7 g/L
What is the mass dissolved in 250 mL to obtain the concentration 20 g/L? mass = 20 g/L x 0.25 L = 5 g What volume of solvent is required when dissolving 15 g to produce a concentration 30 g/L? vol = 15 g / 30 g/L = 0.5 L = 500 mL
%w/w (percentage by mass) 0.9% w/w means 0.9 g per 100g of solution %v/v (percentage by volume) 12% v/v means 12mL per 100mL of solution %w/v (percentage mass/volume) 2.5% w/v means 2.5 g in 100 mL ppm (parts per million) 12 ppm means 12 g in 106 g of solution
Molarity
Molarity is the amount of solute, in moles, dissolved in one liter of a solvent.
Molarity is the most important concentration unit used in Chemistry.
Molarity (M) is the units for concentration (NOTE this M IS NOT molar mass as we
Applications of C=n/V Determine the amount of solute required to prepare a solution of known concentration Calculate the concentration of ions in a solution Calculate the concentration of a solution given the concentration of an ion in solution Calculate the concentration of a solution after dilution Using the formula
Can rearrange the formula for concentration; C=n/V n=CxV V=n/C Also need to relate concentration to the other mole formula; n=m/M
Calculate the number of moles in the following solutions: 1.2 L of 2.5 M NaCl n = C x V = 2.5 x 1.2 = 3 mol 300 mL of 0.25 M NaOH n = C x V = 0.25 x 0.300 = 0.075 mol 20 mL of 0.50 M KOH n = C x V = 0.50 x 0.020 = 0.010 mol
Dilution
Just think about your cordial From the bottle, the cordial is poured into a glass (it is concentrated at this point) and then water is added (ie, it is diluted).
What is common about the original solution in the concentrated glass to that in the dilute glass
The amount of cordial is the same for each, (amount of cordial is the mole of cordial.)
Glass 1 Glass 2
n1 = C1 x V1 n1 = n 2 C1 x V1 = n1 = n 2
n2 = C2 x V2 = C2 x V2
Dilution Rule
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2
Questions on Dilution
Find the concentration when: 2.0 L of 1.25 M solution is diluted to 5.0 L C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 ; 1.25 x 2.0 = C2 x 5.0 ; C2 = 1.25 x 2.0 / 5.0 = 2.5 / 5.0 = 0.5 M 300 mL of 0.05 M solution is diluted to 500 mL C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 ; 0.05 x 300 = C2 x 500 ; C2 = 0.05 x 300 / 500 = 15 / 500 = 0.03 M
250 mL of 0.30 M solution is diluted to 1.2 L C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 ; 0.25 x 0.30 = C2 x 1.2 ; C2 = 0.25 x 0.30 / 1.2 = 0.075 / 1.2 = 0.0625 M 1.5 L of 2.5 M solution is added to 1.0 L (final vol = 2.5 L); C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 ; 2.5 x 1.5 = C2 x 2.5 ; C2 = 2.5 x 1.5 / 2.5 = 3.75 / 2.5 = 1.5 M 20 ml of 1.2 M solution is added to 200 mL (final vol = 220 mL); C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 ; 1.2 x 20 = C2 x 220 ; C2 = 1.2 x 20 / 220 = 3.75 / 2.5 = 0.11 M Note the difference when saying diluted to and added to