QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TOOLS

QUALITY IMPROVEMENT BASIC TOOLS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. TALLY SHEET HISTOGRAM PARETO DIAGRAM CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM SCATTER DIAGRAM SRATIFICATION CONTROL CHART

1. TALLY SHEET

THE TALLY SHEET

SIMPLE REGISTRATION OF DATA AT THE WORK STATION Frequently it makes sense to register data immediately at the work station in a quick and simple way. It is a list in which stripes have to be filled in hence it is called tally. The test data or defects are filled in the related column in a preprinted form immediately after the test. The observed or measured value need not be written down but can be indicated by a stripe/line.

TALLY SHEET Type: test point: number checked: total number: code no: Totals 1 2 6
Specification limit

no.

Date: manufacturer: place checked by: remark:

13

10

16 20

17

12

16

20 17 11
Specification limit

8 5

15 16 17 18

19

20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Check Sheet

Product
Manufacturing stage: final insp. Type of defect: scar. Incomplete crack, misshapen Total no. inspected: 1525 Remarks all items inspected Type Surface scars Cracks In complete Misshapen Others Check

Date:
Section: Inspectors name Lot no. Order no:

Subtotal 17 11 26 3 5

Total:
Total rejects

62
42

2.HISTOGRAM

Histogram
When used in process capability studies, histograms can display specification limits to show what portion of the data does not meet the specifications. The histogram plots data in a frequency distribution table. What distinguishes the histogram from a check sheet is that its data are grouped into rows so that the identity of individual values is removed.

Histogram

After the raw data are collected, they are grouped in value and frequency and plotted in graphical form. A histograms shape shows the nature of the distribution of the data, as well as central tendency and variability. Specification limits can be used to display the capability of the process.

Histogram

Commonly used to present quality improvement data, histograms work best with small amounts of data that vary considerably.

The histogram is a bar chart showing a distribution of variables

Histogram

Product indication: METAL BLOCK XB2 Specification: 3.45+ 0.15mm date: 6.12.2000 Production stage Checked by Number checked (n): 100 Test values 3.36 3.48 3.41 3.55 3.48 3.59 3.40 3.48 3.52 3.46 3.56 3.37 3.52 3.48 3.50 3.47 3.44 3.32 3.59 3.46 3.50 3.32 3.47 3.50 3.40 3.47 3.51 3.50 3.45 3.44 3.42 3.47 3.45 3.45

Date : 6.12.1982 Production stage Checked

X max 3.51 3.48 3.56 3.47 3.46 3.43 3.42 3.60 3.46 3.48 3.48 344 3.54 3.46 3.52 3.50 3.30 3.46 3.56 3.56 3.50 3.55 3.52 3.63 3.68 3.56 3.54 3.54

X min

3.43
3.40 3.44 3.49 3.34 3.52 3.50 3.46 3.54

3.42
3.30 3.37 3.44 3.30 3.31 3.40 3.46 3.41 3.34

3.46
3.50 3.48 3.46 3.45 3.68

3.46
3.46 3.46 3.52 3.56 3.41 3.47

3.48
3.63 3.54 3.50 3.48 3.45

3.52
3.38 3.40

3.30
3.31 3.46 3.52 3.49 3.54

3.56
3.46 3.34

3.52
3.46 3.47

3.49
3.51 3.46

3.41

3.40

DIVISION IN CLASSES

Class number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Class limits

Class mid-marks 3.30 3.35 3.40 3.45 3.50 3.55 3.60 3.65 3.70

3.275 - 3.325 3.325 - 3.375 3.375 - 3.425 3.425 - 3.475 3.475 - 3.525 3.525 - 3.575 3.575 - 3.625 3.625 - 3.675 3.675 - 3.725

Frequency table Class number Class limits

Class mid-marks Number n = 100 Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3.275 - 3.325 3.325 - 3.375 3.375 - 3.425 3.425 - 3.475 3.475 - 3.525 3.525 - 3.575 3.575 - 3.625 3.625 - 3.675 3.675 - 3.725

3.30 3.35 3.40 3.45 3.50 3.55 3.60 3.65 3.70

3 3 9 32 38 10 3 1 1

Specified tolerance

3.30 - 3.60
40 30 20 10 0 3.30 3.40 3.50 3.60 3.70 Thickness in mm

Specification value 3.450.15

HOW TO READ A HISTOGRAM

Histogram with an isolated part. Examine cause of this irregularity. E.g. Mixed products of different machines, different

Histogram

Histogram with an interruption. Possibly errors have been made during measurement of the preparation of the histogram.
Check the measuring equipment the reading methods or change the number of classes.

Histogram

Histogram with two peaks. This shows products from two manufacturing processes. Study the subdivision of the groups and make a histogram per group.

Histogram

Distribution cut off at the left. Products have been selected before hand.

COMPARISON WITH THE TOLERANCE LIMITS

Spec limits R

Range (R) of the measured values exactly in the middle.

In this situation no risk of rejects, due to small variations in the process.

Histogram
Spec limits
R

Although R is within the tolerance the mean of the process is too close to the lower limit. A minor change in the production process will result in increased rejects.

Histogram
Spec limits/ R

R and the tolerance are exactly the same.

This situation offers no room for a change in the process i.e. any change in the

Histogram
Spec limits
R

The tolerance is wider than R.

It is possible to reduce the specified tolerance or the accuracy of the process.

Histogram
Spec limits
R

The process mean is too far to the left and must be shifted to the nominal value.

The distribution is too wide. Change the process to limit distribution or extend tolerance.

3.PARETO DIAGRAM

PARETO DIAGRAM

The Pareto diagram is named after Vilfredo Pareto, a 19th century Italian economist who postulated that a large share of wealth is owned by a small percentage of the population.
This basic principle translates well into quality problemsmost quality problems result from a small number of causes.

PARETO DIAGRAM

Quality experts often refer to the principle as the 80/20 rule;

that is 80% of the problems are caused by 20% of the potential sources.

PARETO DIAGRAM

A Pareto diagram puts data in a hierarchical order which allows the most significant problems to be corrected first. The Pareto analysis technique is used primarily to identify and evaluate nonconformities, although it can summarize all types of data. It is perhaps the diagram most often used in management presentations.

PARETO DIAGRAM

To create a Pareto diagram, the operator collects random data, regroups the categories in order of frequency, and creates a bar graph based on the results.

PARETO DIAGRAM

This tool is a graphical picture of the most frequent causes of a particular problem.
It shows where to put your initial effort to get the most gain.

Sales Department A B

Loss (In millions of Rupees) 5 2.5

C
D E F G

10
20 45 1.5 1

H
Others Total

1.5
0.5 87.0

Sales Department

Loss (In millions of Rupees) 5 2.5 10 20 45 1.5 1

Percentage of total 51.7 23.0 11.5 5.7 2.9 1.7 1.7 1.2 0.6 100

Cumulative % 51.7 74.7 86.2 91.9 94.8 96.5 98.2 99.4 100

E D C A B F H

G Others
Total

1.5
0.5 87.0

PARETO DIAGRAM
90 80 70 Jan - May 19XX 60 50 40 30 20 10 50% 100%

0 E D
C

Div

PARETO DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

Make a list of possible defects or problems according to cause, phenomenon, cost price, etc. Collect these data over a certain length of time. Express the data in the correct units. Classify the groups in descending order of Occurrence and draw the bar diagram. Draw a broken line indicating the cumulative %, starting with the right hand top corner of the first bar.

PARETO DIAGRAM

200

Number of units investigated

100 90 80 70

180
160 Number of defective units 140

120
100

PARETO DIAGRAM

60
50

80 60
40

40 30
20 10

20

Others

A:Crack B: Scratch C: Stain D: Strain E: Gap F: Pinhole

Cumulative percentage

4.CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

A cause and effect diagram describes a relationship between variables. The undesirable outcome is shown as effect, & related causes are shown as leading to or potentially leading to said effect.
This tool has one severe limitation, however, in that users can overlook important, complex interactions between causes.

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

Thus if a problem is caused by a combination of factors, it is difficult to use this tool to depict and solve it.
A fish bone diagram displays all contributing factors and their relationships to the outcome to identify areas where data should be collected and analyzed.

Steps

Determine the quality characteristic. Write the chosen quality characteristic on the RH side of a sheet of paper & enclose the characteristic in a square. Draw the backbone line from left to right. Primary causes which directly affect the quality characteristic be drawn as big bones. Secondary causes are linked by medium sized bones. Tertiary causes comes small bones. Assign an importance to each factor and mark particularly important factors that seem to have a significant affect on the quality characteristic.

Procedure
Decide on the quality characteristic. Find as many causes (which may affect the quality characteristic) as possible. Sort out the relations among the causes and make a C & E diagram by connecting those elements. Assign an importance no. to each factors and mark the particularly important factors which seem to have significant effect on the quality characteristic. Write in any necessary information.

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

The major areas of potential causes are shown in the main bones, e.g., Materials, Methods, Men, Measurements, Machines. Later, the sub-areas are depicted. Thorough analysis of each cause can eliminate causes one by one, and the most probable root cause can be selected for corrective action.

Cause And Effect Diagram

Quantitative information can also be used to prioritize means for improvement whether it be machine, design, or operator.

Its most frequent use is to list the cause of particular problems. The lines coming off the core horizontal line are the main causes and the lines coming off those are sub causes.

Solder Bath

Conveyor Solder Composition Wave Height

Speed

Storage Dust

Moisture Temperature Dross Inclination Humidity Quality of wave soldering

Baking Type Specific Gravity Foaming Action/ level

Pre heat Temperature

Flux

Clinched Lead length PTH Quality Clearance between lead dia & hole dia

Lead Formation/ stress

PCB

Tinning Solder Mask type components

New product Info R&D PR 4 Production & Despatch Sales & Marketing (define frequency) EmploQuality Nil failure at the Timely Courtesy calls yees time of installations Reliable (define frequency Delivery morale Minimal failure due Product feed back time upgradable Low product Qlty partnership Development Cost effective Attrition Define delivery time Buy back offers (<10%) Meet customers for higher end m/c & Customer req. v/s Suppliers Spec. need for lower end m/c Career Prod Spec Right pricing Transit damages Nil transit damages Development Define response to Timely collections Performance this Satisfied customer management Introduction training system AMC Renewal and Product training collection target Invoicing to be met Accurate & Component level Training & Response timely Supports all development training Define for major billing and time functions Personality A/C, for metro and collection development remote. Customer relation skills Job/Repair Time Define Functional training Cust.Care

Training

Commercial & Accounts

Customer support

Health Relaxation

Spirit Patience

Encouragement Pride Fighting spirit Devotion

Rest Carefulness Amusement Time Sleep Depth Theory Planning Rules Information Study of opponent Analysis power Motion Speed Cooperation Teamwork Function Concentration

Calmness Composure Confidence

Defeat in a sports match Schedule

Exercise Quality Quantity Advice Form Model

Observation
Common sense Strategy Judgement of situation

Repetition

Experiences in matches

Technique

MACHINES Old OPERATORS

Parts wearing

Poor alignments
Wrong spare parts

Machine breakdown

Unaware Shortage
Poor training

Poor maintenance Breakdown not reported POOR QUALITY OF GLAZES Variable quality Wrong time Cheaper brand Wrong temperature Incorrect settings

Damp weather (storage)

METHODS

MATERIALS

MAN Dirty hands

MACHINE

Maintenance Possible other Causes Direction adjustment

Holes in gloves
EFFECT measurement Description/procedures calibration

flatness

hardness

METHOD
MATERIAL

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

5. SCATTER DIAGRAM

SCATTER DIAGRAM

A scatter diagram shows how two variables are related and is thus used to test for cause and effect relationships.It cannot prove that one variable causes the change in the other, only that a relationship exists and how strong it is. In a scatter diagram, the horizontal (x) axis represents the measurement values of one variable, and the vertical (y) axis represents the measurements of the second variable.

SCATTER DIAGRAM

FIGURE shows part clearance values on the x-axis and the corresponding quantitative measurement values on the yaxis.

SCATTER DIAGRAM

The scatter diagram shows the pattern of relationship between two variables that are thought to be related. The closer the points hug a diagonal line the more closely there is a one to one relationship.

cm
160

SCATTER DIAGRAM

150
140

130
120

X
150 160 170 180 190 cm

10

SCATTER DIAGRAM

9
Machine accuracy (% defective readings) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Height of water (metres)

TYPES OF SCATTER DIAGRAMS

Y

Y increases as X increases Strong positive correlation

X

SCATTER DIAGRAM
Y

Y may increase as X increases weak positive correlation

X

SCATTER DIAGRAM
Y

No relation between X and Y No correlation

X

SCATTER DIAGRAM
Y

Y may decrease as X increases weak negative correlation

SCATTER DIAGRAM
Y

Y decreases as X increases Strong negative correlation

X

ANALYSING

SCATTER DIAGRAM

A scatter diagram should be analysed carefully. Although it is possible to express correlation in the first instance, complicated calculations are not required. Sometimes the correlation between two variables is so evident that certain conclusions can be drawn immediately. If the correlation is less obvious, it will be necessary to analyse the diagram carefully. In these cases there may be other causes.

60

55
SCATTER DIAGRAM

50

45

850

900

SCATTER DIAGRAM

Scatter diagram showing the relation between the hardening temperature and the hardness of a certain component. There is an apparent correlation whereby the hardness assumes higher values if the hardening temperature increases.

In other words the hardness can be controlled by controlling the hardening temperature. The scatter diagram enables us to visualize this relation. The scatter diagram becomes particularly interesting when the properties of a product can only be established by destroying the product ( destructive testing).

If a substituting property can be found showing a correlation with the desired property, without the need to destroy the product the method offers clear advantages. Example determining the correlation by means of a scatter diagram. By means of scatter diagrams we would like to find out whether there is a correlation between the heights of fathers and those of their children.

PROCEDURE Count the total number of observation in the graph. Draw horizontal and vertical lines dividing the number of points in two equal halves across top/bottom and left and right resp. This yields four sectors I, II, III and IV and thus four groups of observations n1, n2, n3 and n4. Points lying on the center lines are either distributed randomly or neglected.

SCATTER DIAGRAM

6. STRATIFICATION

Types of stratification
By material Consider variations in manufacturer, brand, size of consignment, storage item and conditions. By machine look for variations in machine type, make, model, age position. By operator consider factors such as experiences, age, training, gender.

By inspection method Classify by instruments used, inspection procedure, inspector. By time Are the data affected by time of day, season, position, in the operation lifecycle? By weather Look for changes in humidity and temperature. Others Look for significant strata all along the production chain.

1. By material

Manufacturer, buyer, brand, place of production, purchase date, lot received, production lot, components, purity, size, parts, time stored, storage place, etc. Machine type , number, model, performance, and age: by factory, line, tool, and die. Individual, team, group, age, experiences, gender, etc.

2. By machine, equipment, or tool 3. By operator

4. By operating procedure Temperature, pressure, speed, rational frequency, line speed,location of operation, illumination, air temperature, and by operating humidity,weather, operating procedure, etc. conditions 5. By measurement and inspection Instrument, measurement procedure, place of measurement. Person making the measurement, inspection tools, inspection procedures, place of inspection, inspector, etc.

6. By time

Time, morning, afternoon, night, day, week, month, period season, etc: just before starting and just after finishing the operation.

7. By environment and weather

Air temperature, humidity, clear, cloudy, rainy, windy, snowy, rainy season, dry season, sound, illumination, etc.

8. Others

New vs.. previous product, unit product vs.. continuously produced product, good product vs.. defective product, packing method and transportation method etc.

7.Control Charts

Control Charts

A control chart displays statistically determined upper and lower limits drawn on either side of a process average. This chart shows if the collected data are within upper and lower limits previously determined through statistical calculations of raw data from earlier trials.

Control Charts

The construction of a control chart is based on statistical principles and statistical distributions, namely normal Distribution.
When used in conjunction with a manufacturing process, such charts can indicate trends and signal when a process is out of control.

Control Charts

The centerline of a control chart represents an estimate of the process mean; the upper and lower critical limits are also indicated. The process results are monitored over time and should remain within the control limits; if they do not, an investigation is conducted for the causes and corrective action is taken. A control chart helps determine variability so it can be reduced as much as is economically justifiable.

Control Charts

In preparing a control chart, the mean upper control limit (UCL) and the lower control limit (LCL) of an approved process and its data are calculated. A blank control chart with mean UCL and LCL with no data points is created; data points are added as they are statistically calculated from raw data.

Control Charts The control chart is a line chart with control limits. By mathematically constructing control limits at 3 standard deviations above and below the average, one can determine what variation is due to normal ongoing causes (common causes)and what variation is produced by unique events (special causes). By eliminating the special causes first and then reducing common causes, quality can be improved.

CONTROL CHART

8.45
8.41 8.37 Control limit

Days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Mr. A walks faster because it is past 8.45

Control Chart

Abnormal

Normal
v

Abnormal

Control Chart

(a) consecutive

Seven consecutive points

Center line
Six consecutive points

(b) Bias to one side

Center line

Ten of eleven consecutive points on one side of the center line

Control Chart

(c) trend Six consecutive raising point Falling trend in a wave

Control Chart

(d) Approaching the limits

Two of three consecutive points

JCL (3s lines)

Two of three consecutive points

Control Chart

(c) Periodicity

Period

1 wk

1 wk

1 wk

M T W

S M T W R F S M TWR F

SMT W F FSMTW

Control Chart

Control Chart

a small wave varies the large periodic wave

Control Chart

QUALITY IMPROVEMENT BASIC TOOLS - SUMMARY

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. TALLY SHEET HISTOGRAM PARETO DIAGRAM CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM SCATTER DIAGRAM SRATIFICATION CONTROL CHART

APPLICATIONS SUMMARY
ACTIVITY TOOL TO BE USED

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

SEGGREGATING DEFECTS, PRIOROTISING IDENTIFYING EFFECTS & THEIR ROOT CAUSES COMPILING DATA & ANALYSIS FOR DECISION MAKING STUDY PATTERN OF OBSERVATIONS & PROVIDE CONTROL LIMITS STUDY CONSISTENCY & QUALITY OF PROCESSES TESTING HYPOTHETICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES ORCHARECTERISTICS ASCERTAIN DIFFRENCES

PARETO C&E DIAGRAM CHECK SHEETS HISTOGRAM

CONTROL CHARTS SCATTER DIAGRAM

STRATIFICATION DIAGRAM