Alogorithm &amp Prolem Solving

Algorithms
Problem Solving
Topic & Structure of the lesson

Design
In this chapter you will learn about:

Problem Solving Algorithm Pseudocodes Flowcharts
PSPD Using C
Slide 2 of 40
Key Terms you must be able to use

Design
If you have mastered this topic, you should be able to use the following terms correctly in your assignments and exams: program pseudocode
flowchart
algorithm
PSPD Using C Slide 3 of 40
Problem Solving Techniques

Design
In this chapter you will learn about:
What problem solving is The software development method of

problem solving using computers Basic algorithm control structures The sequence structure The selection structure The repetition structure
PSPD Using C
Slide 4 of 40
Problem Solving Techniques

Design
By the time you have completed this chapter,you will have acquired the ability to:
Apply the software development method to

solve problems
Difference between the Algorithm & the

Flowchart
Knowing about the control structures

Problem Solving
Design
UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM

First: What is the unknown? What are the data?What is the condition? You have to understand the Is it possible to satisfy the condition?Is the condition sufficient to determine the unknown?Or problem. is it sufficient?Or Redundant? Or Contradictory? Draw a figure.Introduce suitable notation.Separate the various parts of the condition.Can you write them down?
PSPD Using C
Slide 6 of 40
Problem Solving
Design
DEVISING A PLAN
Second: Find the connection between the data and the unknown. Auxiliary problems may be devised if needed. You should obtain eventually a plan of the solution. Have you seen it before? Or have you seen the same problem in slightly different form? Do you know a related problem? Look at the unknown! Try to think of a familiar problem having the same or similar unknown. Split the problem into smaller, simple sub-problems. If you cannot solve the proposed problem try to solve first some related problem. Or solve more general problem. Or special case of the problem. Or solve the part of the problem.
Slide 7 of 40
PSPD Using C
Problem Solving
Design
Third: Carry out your plan. Fourth: Examine the solution obtained.
CARRYING OUT THE PLAN

Carrying out your plan of the solution,check each step. Can you see clearly that step is correct? Can you prove that it is correct?
LOOKING BACK
Can you check the result? Can you derive the result differently? Can you use the result, or the method, for some other problem?
PSPD Using C
Slide 8 of 40
Problem Solving
Design
The software development method The software development method consists of the following steps:
Requirements specification Analysis Design
Implementation
Testing and verification Documentation
Algorithmic Problem Solving

Design
Algorithmic problem: Any problem whose solution can be expressed as a set of executable instructions. Algorithm: A well defined computational procedure consisting of a set of instructions, that takes some value or set of values, as input, and produces some value or set of values, as output.
PSPD Using C
Slide 10 of 40

Design
Derived from the name of Mohammed alkhowarizmi, a Persian mathematician in the ninth century. Al-khowarizmi--Algorismus(in Latin)--Algorithm An algorithm is like a recipe, that converts the ingredients into some culinary dish. The formal written version is a program. Algorithms/programs are the software.The machine that runs the programs is the hardware.
PSPD Using C
Slide 11 of 40

Design
Ingredient
Recipe (software)
Cooking utensils (hardware)
Al-gong Bah-kut-the
PSPD Using C
Slide 12 of 40
Characteristics of an Algorithm
Design
Each step of an algorithm must be exact,

preciously and ambiguously described.
It must terminate, i.e. it contains a finite

number of steps.
It must be effective, i.e.., produce the correct

output.
It must be general, i.e.. to solve every

instance of the problem.
PSPD Using C
Slide 13 of 40
Design
An Algorithm is implemented in some programming

language. program = Algorithm + Data Structures.
Data Structures refer to the types of data used and

how the data are organized in the program.
An algorithm is usually presented in the form of some

pseudo-code, which is a mixture of English statement,some mathematical notations,and selected keywords from a programming language.
PSPD Using C
Slide 14 of 40
Design
An Algorithm
should emphasize the WHATs and not the HOWs. Consider the problem below: PROBLEM:
You are required to design a complete system which will enable the sum of two values to be calculated.
PSPD Using C
Slide 15 of 40
Problem Solving
Design
To grapple with this problem, we have to understand the problem from the human perspective. A question to ask yourself is this, How Would You Calculate the Sum of Two Values?
PSPD Using C
Slide 16 of 40
Problem Solving
Design
As the computer is also a device similar to the way in which the human brain functions, the process of calculating the sum of two values can also be easily performed by the computer.
=
Problem Solving
Design
Processing (Brains)
Input Output
Problem Solving
Output Device
Design
CPU (Brains)
Input Device
PSPD Using C
Slide 19 of 40
Problem Solving
Design
Processing
5 10 5 + 10 = 15
15
Input
Output
Let us assume we are interested in calculating the sum of 5 and 10.
Problem Solving
Design
As shown previously, the example values (5 and 10) have been specified explicitly. As the brain is flexible enough in calculating a wide range of numbers, the two input values have to be generalised.
PSPD Using C
Slide 21 of 40
Problem Solving
Design
Value2 Value1
Sum = Value1 + Value2
Sum Notice that instead of using specific numbers, variables are used to represent these values.
What Are Variables?

Design
Variables are memory locations within the computer which allows pieces of data to be stored. The word variable comes from the word vary, which means that whatever you place within a variable can be changed.
A variable can be viewed as a container used to store things.
Data (for example, name, age, salary) can be stored in these containers.
What Are Variables?

Design
PSPD Using C
Slide 24 of 40
Problem Solving
Design
Now that we have an exact idea about how the problem is solved, let us represent this in a clearer manner, using the defining diagram.
Input
Value1 Value2
Processing
Output
Sum
PSPD Using C
Slide 25 of 40
Problem Solving
Design
The next step is to identify the actual processing steps required to convert the input to become the output. Input
Value1
Value2
Processing
1) Read Value1, Value2
2) Calculate Sum 3) Display Sum
Output
Sum
PSPD Using C
Slide 26 of 40
Algorithm Development
Once the defining diagram has been developed, the next logical step is to develop the algorithm (which is much more detailed).
Design
Input
Value1
Processing
1) Read Value1, Value2
Output
Sum
Value2
2) Calculate Sum
3) Display Sum
The developed processing steps have to be more detailed in the algorithm.

Design
The basic mathematical operators used in algorithms are as follows:+ addition
* / = ()
subtraction
multiplication division assignment brackets for grouping calculations
PSPD Using C
Slide 28 of 40
Design
Example of an algorithm (using pseudocodes) which can be used to carry out the tasks outlined in the defining diagram is as follows:1) 2) Read Value1, Value2 Calculate
Sum = Value1 + Value2

3)
PSPD Using C
Display Sum
Slide 29 of 40
Pseudocoding
Design
A Pseudocode language is semiformal, Englishlike language with a limited vocabulary that can be used to design and describe algorithms. The pseudocode language can be used for: Designing algorithms Communicating algorithms as programs Implementing algorithms as programs Debugging logic errors in program
PSPD Using C
Slide 30 of 40
Pseudocode for the Control Structures

Design
The Sequence Control Structure:
The sequence control structure is a series of steps or statements that are executed in the order in which they are written in an algorithm.
For Example: read taxable income read filing status compute income tax
PSPD Using C
Slide 31 of 40
Contd
Design
The Selection Control Structure:

The selection control structure defines two courses of action, depending on the outcome of a condition. A condition is an expression that, when evaluated, computes to either true or false. Syntax is: if condition then-part else else-part end-if
PSPD Using C
Slide 32 of 40
Decision Making
Design
Being able to mimic the way the human brain works, the computer also has the ability to make decisions. Decision making can be represented pseudocodes using the IF...THEN construct. IF (expression) THEN : : ENDIF
in
Decision Making
Design
The expression is a comparison between two values which evaluates to either true of false.
IF (expression) THEN : : ENDIF Statements are placed here.

Decision Making
Design
Example:-
We are looking for a job which pays more than RM4000.

Example of an Expression
IF (Salary>4000) THEN Say "I Will Take The Job!!" ENDIF

Decision Making
Design
Commonly used relational operators in expressions:> < Greater Than Less Than
=
<> >= <= ()
Equals To
Not Equals To Greater Than or Equals To Less Than or Equals To Brackets used for prioritising certain calculations
PSPD Using C
Slide 36 of 40
Decision Making
Design
Since all expressions works out to be either true or false, what the IF..THEN statement represents is a two-state condition. For example,
A potential employer is waiting for you to give a reply (on the spot) about the job offer with a salary of RM2000. Your decision would be to only take a job worth more than RM4000. What would you say?
IF (Salary>4000) THEN Say YES! ELSE Say NO! ENDIF
Decision Making
Design
Certain conditions may give rise to more than one expression being evaluated. These are known as compound expressions. Example:-
You are interested in taking up a job which pays more than RM4000 and that the company must also provide a credit card.
IF (Salary>4000) And (CreditCard=YES) THEN Take Job!! ENDIF
Decision Making
Design
Compound expressions can be represented using the following operators:AND Every expression must evaluate to be true in order for the whole expression to be true. As long as any one of the expression can be true, the entire IF statement will be true. The inverse (opposite) of the entire expression.
Slide 39 of 40
OR
NOT
PSPD Using C
Decision Making
Design
IF statements can be nested, that is, placed within another IF statement. This is used in situations when the expression is more complex than the simple decisions (as seen earlier).
PSPD Using C
Slide 40 of 40
Decision Making
For example, this statement.........
IF (Salary>4000) And (CreditCard=YES) THEN Say Yes I Will Take The Job!! ENDIF
Design
can be represented like this.........

IF (Salary>4000) THEN IF (CreditCard=YES) THEN Say Yes I Will Take The Job!! ELSE Say No Credit Card? Say Sorry!! ENDIF ELSE Say Not Enough Pay!! ENDIF
........ whereby more possibilities can be represented.

Decision Making
For good practice...........
IF (Salary>4000) THEN IF (CreditCard=YES) THEN Say Yes I Will Take The Job!! ELSE Say No Credit Card? Say Sorry!! ENDIF ELSE Say Not Enough Pay!! ENDIF
Design
........ ensure that statements are properly indented to indicate block of statements which belong together.
Contd
Design
For Example:
if a is greater than b then

print A is greater else
print B is greater
end if
PSPD Using C
Slide 43 of 40
Contd
Design
Repetition Control Structure: The repetition control structure specifies a block of one or more statements that are repeatedly executed until a condition is satisfied. Syntax is: while condition loop-body end-while
PSPD Using C
Slide 44 of 40
Looping Constructs
Design
Looping constructs (also known as repetition or iteration constructs) are a kind of construct found in pseudocodes which allows statements (or a group of statements) to be repeated. The main reason why looping constructs are provided is because most of the problems which we encounter everyday requires some degree of repetition.
PSPD Using C
Slide 45 of 40
Looping Constructs
Design
An example of a process which is iterative:-
Payroll processing is very much an iterative process as the person processing the payroll applies the same calculations for each employee to produce the pay slip.
PSPD Using C
Slide 46 of 40
Looping Constructs
Design
The looping constructs available in pseudocodes are as follows:-
DOWHILE...ENDDO FORNEXT REPEAT...UNTIL
PSPD Using C
Slide 47 of 40
Looping Constructs
Design
The format of the DOWHILE...ENDDO construct is shown below:DOWHILE (expression) : : : ENDDO

Group of statements
PSPD Using C
An expression which determines whether the loop will continue.

Slide 48 of 40
Looping Constructs
Design
The format of the FOR...NEXT construct is shown below:FOR (initialze TO expression) STEP increment : : : ENDDO
Group of statements
PSPD Using C

Slide 49 of 40
Looping Constructs
Design
The format of the REPEAT...UNTIL construct is shown below:REPEAT : : : UNTIL (expression)

Group of statements
PSPD Using C

Slide 50 of 40
Looping Constructs
Design
Take a look at the following example:You are required to develop a complete system which will allow the total payroll to be calculated.
The system is required to read in the amount to be paid for each employee.
The moment the system receives an input value of -99, the system is required to stop and display the total payroll.
Looping Constructs
Design
The Defining Diagram Input

Salary
Processing
1) Read Salary 2) Calculate Total 3) Display Total
Output
Total
PSPD Using C
Slide 52 of 40
Looping Constructs
Algorithm (Using Pseudocodes)
1) Display "Enter Salary" 2) Read Salary
Design
3) Total = 0
4) DOWHILE (Salary<>-99) Total = Total + Salary Display "Enter Salary" Read Salary ENDDO 5) Display "Total Payroll = ", Total
Contd
Design
Example:
Dowhile (income is less than 50000) print Enter taxable income;should be greater than or equal to 50000 read income Enddo
PSPD Using C
Slide 54 of 40
Desk Check Table

Design
A desk check table is used to verify the correctness of the design. This is to ensure that the program which will eventually be developed is going to produce the answer which is required. The desk check table is developed based on the following steps:-
1) 2) 3)
4)
PSPD Using C
Identify the data sets. Identify the expected results. Trace through the algorithm with the data sets using a trace table. Analyse & compare the results produced in step (3) and the expected results in step (2).
Slide 55 of 40
Desk Check Table Identify Data Sets Input

Value1 Value2
Design
Processing
1) Read Value1, Value2 2) Calculate Sum
Output
Sum
3) Display Sum
Focus on the input section of the defining diagram and identify some possible values (data sets) which can be used to test the system.
Desk Check Table

Identify Expected Results Input
Value1 Value2
Design
Processing
1) Read Value1, Value2 2) Calculate Sum
Output
Sum
3) Display Sum
Focus on the output section of the defining diagram and identify some possible values which the system will produce based on the data sets.
Desk Check Table

Trace Table - Data Set 1
Value1 Read Calculate Display 5 Value2 3 8
Design
Sum
Do the results match the expected results?

Desk Check Table

Design
Sum

Desk Check Table

Design
Sum

Program Flowcharts
Design
As humans are more inclined towards understanding diagrams and pictures rather than words, pseudocodes tends to become tedious to understand if too lengthy.
Program flowcharts, because they are represented graphically, makes understanding easier.
PSPD Using C
Slide 61 of 40
Program Flowcharts
The following are the commonly used symbols for drawing program flowcharts. terminator process decision making
Design
off-page connector storage
document
input/output
arrowheads
PSPD Using C
connector
Slide 62 of 40
Program Flowcharts
Begin Read Value1, Value2
Design
Calculate Sum = Value1 + Value2
Display Sum
End
Program Flowcharts
Begin
Design
Read Amount
YES
Amount>20.00?
NO
Calculate Actual=Amount * 0.80
Calculate Actual=Amount
End
Flowcharting
Design
Another technique used in designing and representing

algorithms.
Alternative to pseudocoing A pseudocode description is verbal, a flowchart is

graphical in nature.
Definition:
A flowchart is a graph consisting of geometrical shapes

that are connected by flow lines.
PSPD Using C
Slide 65 of 40
Sequence Structure
Design
Pseudocode: statement_1 statement_2 -----------statement_n
Flowchart:
Statement -1
Statement -2
Statement -n
PSPD Using C
Slide 66 of 40
Selection Structure
Design
Pseudocode: if condition then-part
Flowchart:
else
else-part end_if
false condition else-part
true
then-part
PSPD Using C
Slide 67 of 40
Selection Structure
Design
Pseudocode:
Flowchart:
if condition
then-part end_if
condition
N
true
false
then-part
PSPD Using C
Slide 68 of 40
Repetition Structure
Design
Pseudocode: while condition
Flowchart:
loop-body
end-while T
condition
F N
loop-body
PSPD Using C
Slide 69 of 40
Summary
Design
Problem Solving the process of transforming the description of a problem to its solution. To Solve complex problems, we use computers as a tool and develop computer programs that give us solutions. A commonly used method for problem solving using computers is the software development method,which consists of six steps.
PSPD Using C
Slide 70 of 40
Summary
Design
1.
The Requirements specification, provides us with a precise definition of the problem. In the analysis phase we identify problem inputs,outputs,special constraints, and formulas and equations to be used. The design phase is concerned with developing an algorithm for the solution of the problem.
2.
3.
PSPD Using C
Slide 71 of 40
Summary
Design
4.
The implementation of an algorithm is a computer program.When executed, it should produce the solution to the problem. Program Verification is the process of ensuring that a program meets user requirements. Program testing, on the other hand, is the process of executing a program to demonstrate its correctness.
5. 6.
7.
Program Documentation facilitates the use of the program,future program maintenance efforts,and program debugging.
PSPD Using C
Slide 72 of 40
Summary
Design
An algorithm is a sequence of a finite number of steps

arranged in a specific logical order that, when executed, produce the solution for a problem.
A pseudocode language is a semiformal,English-like

language with a limited vocabulary that can be used to design and describe algorithms.
PSPD Using C
Slide 73 of 40
Summary
Design
Any algorithm can be described in terms of three basic
control structures.They are the sequence,selection and repetition structures. fundamental problem-solving strategy. algorithm.
The top-down stepwise refinement of algorithms is a

A Flowchart is a graphical representation of an
PSPD Using C
Slide 74 of 40
Quick Review Question

Design
1. State the difference between the Dowhile Enddo structure and the Repeat Until structure. 2. Write an algorithm that will display the first hundred even numbers using the Do-While loop.
PSPD Using C
Slide 75 of 40
Follow Up Assignment
Design
This is an individual piece of work.
Your source code will be discussed at the end of the next lesson.
PSPD Using C
Slide 76 of 40
Summary of Main Teaching Points

Design
Problem Solving Pseudocodes Flowcharts
Basic control structures The sequence structure The selection structure The repetition structure
PSPD Using C
Slide 77 of 40

Alogorithm &amp Prolem Solving

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Descrição original:

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Alogorithm &amp Prolem Solving

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Algorithms

Topic & Structure of the lesson

In this chapter you will learn about:

Key Terms you must be able to use

Problem Solving Techniques

In this chapter you will learn about:

What problem solving is The software development method of

Problem Solving Techniques

Apply the software development method to

Difference between the Algorithm & the

Knowing about the control structures

UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM

CARRYING OUT THE PLAN

Algorithmic Problem Solving

Algorithmic Problem Solving

Algorithmic Problem Solving

Cooking utensils (hardware)

Each step of an algorithm must be exact,

It must terminate, i.e. it contains a finite

It must be effective, i.e.., produce the correct

It must be general, i.e.. to solve every

An Algorithm is implemented in some programming

Data Structures refer to the types of data used and

An algorithm is usually presented in the form of some

Sum = Value1 + Value2

What Are Variables?

A variable can be viewed as a container used to store things.

What Are Variables?

The developed processing steps have to be more detailed in the algorithm.

The basic mathematical operators used in algorithms are as follows:+ addition

Sum = Value1 + Value2

Pseudocode for the Control Structures

The Sequence Control Structure:

The Selection Control Structure:

IF (expression) THEN : : ENDIF Statements are placed here.

We are looking for a job which pays more than RM4000.

IF (Salary>4000) THEN Say "I Will Take The Job!!" ENDIF

can be represented like this.........

........ whereby more possibilities can be represented.

if a is greater than b then

An example of a process which is iterative:-

The looping constructs available in pseudocodes are as follows:-

DOWHILE...ENDDO FORNEXT REPEAT...UNTIL

The format of the DOWHILE...ENDDO construct is shown below:DOWHILE (expression) : : : ENDDO

An expression which determines whether the loop will continue.

An expression which determines whether the loop will continue.

The format of the REPEAT...UNTIL construct is shown below:REPEAT : : : UNTIL (expression)

An expression which determines whether the loop will continue.

The Defining Diagram Input

Desk Check Table

Desk Check Table Identify Data Sets Input

Desk Check Table

Desk Check Table

Do the results match the expected results?

Desk Check Table

Do the results match the expected results?

Desk Check Table

Do the results match the expected results?

off-page connector storage

Calculate Sum = Value1 + Value2

Calculate Actual=Amount * 0.80

Another technique used in designing and representing