Biometrics

The branch of science that includes the measurement of physiological variables and parameters is known as biometrics. Biomedical instrumentation provides the tools by which these measurements can be achieved. Some forms of biomedical instrumentation are unique to the field of medicine but many are adaptation of widely used physical measurements. A thermistor,for example, changes its electrical resistance with temperature, regardless of whether the temperature is that of an engine or the human body. The principle are the same only the shape and size of the device might be different.

Electrode theory

ln order to avoid movement artefacts and to obtain a clearly established contact (low contact impedance) an elecholyte or electrode paste is usually employed as an interface between the electrode and the surface of the source ofthe event. Figure represent the electrode-tissue interface.

 Another example is the stain gauge, which is commonly used to measure the stress in structural components. It operates on the principle that electrical resistance is changes by the stretching of a source of constant voltage, an electrical output can be obtained that is proportional to the amount of the strain. Since pressure can be translated into strains by various means, blood pressure can be measured by an adaptation of this device. When the transducer is connected into a typical circuit, such as abridge configuration, and this circuit is excited from source of constant input voltage, the changes in resistance are reflected in the output as voltage changes. For a thermistor, the temperature is indicated on a voltmeter calibrated in degrees Celsius of Fahrenheit.

In the design or specification of medical instrumentation systems, each of the following factors should be considered.

Range :
The range of an instrument is generally considered to include all the levels of input amplitude and frequency over which the device is expected to operate. The objective should be to provide an instrument that will give a usable reading from the smallest expected value of the variable or parameter being measured to the largest.

Sensitivity :
The sensitivity of the instrument determines how small a variation of the variable or parameter cab be reliable measured. This factor differs from the instrument's range in that sensitivity is not concerned with the absolute levels of the parameter but rather with the minute changes that cab be detected. The sensitivity directly determines the resolution of the device, which is the minimum variation that can accurately be read. Too high a sensitivity often results in non-linearities or instability. Thus, the optimum sensitivity must be determined for any given type of measurement. Indications of sensitivity are frequently expressed in terms of scale length per quantity to be measured- for example, inches per microampere in a galvanometer coil or inches per millimeter of mercury. These units are sometimes expressed reciprocally. A sensitivity of 0.025 centimeter per millimeter of mercury could be expressed as 40 millimeters of mercury per centimeter.

Linearity :
The degree of which variations on the output of an instrument follows input variations is referred to as the linearity of the device.
In a linear system the sensitivity would be the same for all absolute levels of input, whether in the high, middle, or low portion of the range. In some instruments a certain form of nonlinearity is purposely introduced to create a desired effect, whereas in others it is desirable to have linear scales as much as possible over the entire range of measurement. Linearity should be obtained over the most important segments, even id it is impossible to achieve it over the entire range.

Hysteresis :
Hysteresis is a characteristic of some instrument where by a given value of the measured variable results in a different reading when reached in as ascending direction from that obtained when it is reached in a descending direction. Mechanical friction in a meter, for example, can cause the movement of the indicating needle to lag behind corresponding changes in the measured variable, thus resulting in a Hysteresis error in the reading.

Frequency Response :
The frequency response of an instrument is its variation in sensitivity over the frequency rage of the measurement.

It is important of display a wave shape that is a faithful reproduction of the original physiological signal an instrument system should be able to respond rapidly enough to reproduce all frequency components of the waveform with equal sensitivity. This condition is referred to a s a "flat response" over a given range of frequencies.

Accuracy :
Accuracy is a measure of systemic error. Errors can occur in amplitude of ways. Although not always present simultaneously, the following errors should be considered: Errors due to tolerances of electronic components. Mechanical errors in meter movements. Component errors due toe drift or temperature variation. Errors due to poor frequency response. In certain types of instruments, Errors due to change in atmospheric pressure or temperature. Reading errors due to parallax inadequate illumination, or excessively wide ink trace on a pen recording.

Two additional sources of error should not be overlooked. The first concerns correct instrument zeroing. In most measurements, a zero or a baseline, is necessary. It is often achieved by balancing the wheatstone bridge or a similar device. It is very important that, where needed, balancing or zeroing is done prior to each set of measurements. Another source of error is the effect of the instrument on the parameters to be measured, and vice versa. This is especially true in
measurements in living organism

Signal-to-Noise Ratio :
It is important that the signal to noise ratio be as high as possible. In the hospital environment, power-line-frequency noise or interference is common and is usually picked up in long leads. Also, interference due to electromagnetic electrostatic, or diathermy equipment is possible.
Poor grounding is often a cause of this kind of noise problem. Such "interference noise" however, which is due to coupling from other energy sources, should be differentiated from thermal and shot noise, which originate within the elements of the circuit itself because of the discontinuous nature of matter and electrical current.

Although thermal noise is often the limiting factor in the detection of signals in the fields of electronics, interference noise is often the limiting factor in the detection of signals in other fields of electronics, interference noise is usually more of a problem in biomedical system. It is also important to know and control the signal-to- noise ratio in the actual environment in which the measurement are to be made.

Stability :
In control engineering, stability is the ability of a system to resume a steady state condition following a disturbance at the input rather that be driven into uncontrollable oscillation.

This is a factor that varies with the amount of amplification, feedback, and other features of the system. The overall system must be sufficiently stable over the useful range. Baseline stability is the maintenance of a constant baseline value without drift.

Isolation :
Often measurement muse be made on patients or experimental animals in such a way that the instrument does not produce a direct electric connection between the subject ad ground. This requirement is often necessary for reasons of electrical safety to a avoid interference be achieved by using magnetic or optical coupling techniques, or radio telemetry. Telemetry is also used where movement of the person or animal to be measured is essential, and thus the encumbrance of connecting leads should be avoided.

Simplicity :
All systems and instruments should be as simple as possible to eliminate the chance of component or human error.

Most instrumentation system require calibration before they are actually used. Each component of a measurement system is usually calibrated individually at the factory against a standard. When a medical system is assembled. it should be calibrated as a whole. This step can be done external to the living organism or in situ ( connected to or within the body ) Calibration should always be done by using error-free devices of the simplest kind for references. An example would be that of a complicated, remote blood-pressure monitoring system, which is calibrated against a simple mercury manometer

 The Transducer:
In general, a transducer in defined as a device capable of converting one form of energy or signal to another.The transducer may measure temperature, pressure, flow, or any of the other variables that cab be found in the body, but its output is always an electric signal. As indicated one or more transducers may be used simultaneously to obtain relative variation between phenomena.

Single Conditioning Equipment: The part of the instrumentation system that amplifies, modifies, or in any other way changes the electric output of the transducer is called signal-conditioning ( or sometime signal-processing) equipment.In essence then the purpose of the signal conditioning equipment is to process the transducers in order to satisfy the functions of the system and to prepare signal suitable for operating the display or recording equipment that follows.

 Display Equipment : To be meaningful, the electrical output to of the signal-conditioning equipment must be converted into a form that can be perceived by one of man's senses and that can convey the information obtained by the measurement in a meaningful way.In the man-instrumentation system the display equipment may include a graphic pen recorder that produces a permanent record of the data. Recording Data-Processing, and Transmission Equipment : It is often necessary, or at least desirable, to record the measured information for possible later use or to transmit it from one location to another, whether across the hall of the hospital or halfway around the world. Equipment for these functions if often a vital part of the maninstrument system. Also, where automatic storage or processing of data is required, or where computer control is employed, an on-line analog or digital computer may be part of the instrumentation system.

 Control Devices : Where it is necessary or desirable to have automatic control of the stimulus, transducers, or any other part of the man-instrument system, a control system is incorporated. This system usually consists of a feedback loop in which part of the output from the signal-conditioning or display equipment is used to control the operation of the system in some way.

Bioelectric potentials
In carrying out certain functions,certain systems of body generate their own monitoring signals,which convey about the functions they represent.
These sinals are boielectric potentials associated with nerve conduction,brain activity,heartbeat,muscle activity and so on. Bioelectric potentials are the ionic voltages produced as a result of electro chemical activity of special types of cells.

Through the use of transducers that are capable of converting ionic potentials to electrical voltages,natural monitoring signals can be measured and diplayed ina meaning full way to aid the physician in his diagnosis.

RESTING AND ACTION POTENTIALS

Certain types of cells like nerve cells and muscle cells are enclosed in a semipermiable membrane.
Surrounding the cells are the body fluids. The fluids are conductive solutions containing charged atoms known as ions. Principal ions are K+,Na+,Cl- ions. Membrane readily permits K+ and Cl- ions but blocks Na+ ions.

Since ions seeks balance inside the cells and outside the cell both according to charge and concentration inability of Na+ ions results in two conditions.
Na+ ions inside the cell is much lower than that outside, Thus the outside of the cell is more positive than inside. In an attempt to balance the electric charge additional K+ ions enter the cell causing the higher concentration of K+ inside than outside.

RESTING AND ACTION POTENTIALS

How ever charge balance is not achieved because of concentration imbalance of k+ ions. This membrane potential is known as resting potential and maintained at equilibrium until some imbalance occurs. Measurement of membrane potential is made from inside the cell with respect to outside. so resting potential is negative(-60 to -100 mV). A cell in resting potential is said to be polarized.

Polarized cell with its resting potential

RESTING AND ACTION POTENTIALS

When a section of cell membrane is excited by ionic current or some form of externally applied energy membrane changes its characteristics and allows Na+ ions. Net result is Avalanche effect in which Na+ ions literally rush in to the cell and try to make balance with ions outside.

K+ ions are in higher concentration inside the cell and try to leave the cell but unable to move as rapidly as Na+ ions.
Cell has slight positive potential inside due to imbalance of K+ ions. This potential is known as action potential(20mV). The cell which is excited and displays a potential is said to be depolarized.

Depolarization and Depolarized cell

 Once the rush of Na+ ions have stopped, the ionic current that allowed the barrier to the Na+ ions is no longer present.
Membrane reverts to its original selectively permeable condition.

Na+ ions are again blocked.

It would take a longer period to develop resting potential. But such is not the case, by an effective process called sodium pump, Na+ ions are transported outside the cell. The cell becomes polarized and assumes resting potential. the process is called repolarization. Sodium is withdrawn against charge and concentration gradients supported by some high energy phosphate compound. The rate of pumping proportional to Na+ concentration in the cell.

These refractory period are the result of after potential that follow action potential.

RESTING AND ACTION POTENTIALS

Time scale of action potential depends up on the type of the cell producing potential. In muscle cell action potential is a spike wave form of 1 millisecond duration. For heart muscle 150 to 300 millisecond duration. Net height of action potential is difference between peak of action potential and resting potential.

Absolute refractory period:Let a membrane of a cell be excited by an adequate (threshold) stimulus by flow of ionic current or by externally applied energy. The time during the initial portion of the action potential, the membrane cannot respond to any other stimulus of any magnitude. Relative refractory period:It is the period after absolute refractory period. Meaning that during this period a much stronger stimulus is required to excite again the cell.

Propagation of action potential

Ionic current flows in a cell during excitation and action potential. This current may excite neighboring cells.
As the action potential travels down the fiber, it cannot re-excite the portion of the fiber immediately upstream due to the existence of refractory period following the action potential. This process is called propagation of action potential. Propagation rate is defined as the rate at which an action potential travels from cell to cell. For nerve cell it is nerve conduction rate. The typical value of nerve conduction rate is from 20 m/sec to 140 m/sec. In the case of heart muscle, the propagation rate is from 0.2 m/sec to 0.4 m/sec.

The heart

The heart
The heart is a muscular organ responsible for pumping blood through the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions. The average human heart beating at 72 BPM (beats per minute). The heart wall consists of three layers: (i)The pericardium, which is the outer layer of the heart. It keeps the outer surface moist and prevents friction as the heart beats.

(ii) The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart. It is the main muscle of the heart, which is made up of short cylindrical fibers. This muscle is automatic in action, contracting and relaxing rhythmically throughout life. (iii) The endocardium is the inner layer of the heart. It provides smooth lining for the blood to flow.The heart consists of the following parts:

Superior Vena Cava: Deoxygenated blood from the upper parts of the body returns to the heart through the superior vena cava. Inferior Vena Cava: Deoxygenated blood from the lower parts of the body returns to the heart through the inferior vena cava. Right Atrium: It collects deoxygenated blood returning from the body (through the vena cavas) and then forces it into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve.

Right Ventricle: It collects deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and then forces it into the lungs through the pulmonary valve Pulmonary Arteries: They carry blood from the heart to the lungs to pick up oxygen. Pulmonary Veins: They carry oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart. Left Atrium: It collects oxygenated blood returning from the lungs and then forces it into the left ventricle through the mitral valve. Left Ventricle: It is the largest and the strongest chamber in the heart. It pushes blood through the aortic valve and into the body. Aorta: It is the largest artery and carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body.

 From an engineering point of view, the heart which drives the blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system consists of four chamber muscular pump that beats about 72 times per minute,sending blood through every part of the body. The pump acts as two synchronized but functionally isolated two stage pumps. The first stage of each pump (the atrium) collects blood from the hydraulic system and pumps it into the second stage (the ventricle). In this process, the heart pumps the blood through the pulmonary circulation to the lungs and through the systemic circulation to the other parts of the body.

Electrocardiogram(ECG)
The heart has its own system for generating and conducting action potentials through a complex change of ionic concentration across the cell membrane. Located in the top right atrium near the entry of the vena cava, are a group of cells known as the sino-atrial node (SA node) that initiate the heart activity and act as the primary pace maker of the heart (Fig).

The SA node is 25 to 30 mm in length and 2 to 5 mm thick. It generates impulses at the normal rate of the heart,about 72 beats per minute at rest. Because the body acts as a purely resistive medium, the potential field generated by the SA node extends to the other parts of the heart.
The wave propagates through the right and left atria at a velocity of about 1 m/s. About 0.1 s are required for the excitation of the atria to be completed. The action potential contracts the atrial muscle and the impulse spreads through th atrial wall about 0.4s to the AV (atrioventricular)node. This node is located in the lower part of the wall between the two atria.

 The AV node delays the spread of excitation for about 0.12 s, due to the presence of a fibrous barrier of non-excitable cells that effectively prevent its propagation from continuing beyond the limits of the atria. Then, a special conduction system, known as the bundle of His (pronounced as hiss) carries the action potential to the ventricles. The atria and ventricles are thus functionally linked only by the AV node and the conduction system. The AV node delay ensures that the atria complete their contraction before there is any ventricular contraction. The impulse leaves the AV node via the bundle of His. The fibres in this bundle, known as Purkinje fibres, after a short distance split into two branches to initiate action potentials simultaneously in the two ventricles.

 Conduction velocity in the Purkinje fibres is about 1.5 to 2.5 m/s. Since the direction of the impulse propagating in the bundle of His is from the apex of the heart, ventricular contraction begins at the apex and proceeds upward through the ventricular walls. This results in the contraction of the ventricles producing a squeezing action which forces the blood out of the ventricles into the arterial system. Figure shows the time for action potential to propagate to various areas of the heart.

Electrocardiogram(ECG)

Electrocardiogram(ECG)
Amplitude:
P-wave 0.25 mV R-wave 1.60 mV

Q-wave 25% R wave

T-wave 0.1 to 0.5 mV Duration:P-R interval 0.12 to 0.20 sec(marks the time which an impulse leaving the SA node takes to reach the ventricles) Q-T interval 0.35 to 0.44 sec(is the period for one complete ventricular contraction(systole)). S-T segment 0.05 to 0.15 sec P wave interval 0.11 sec QRS interval 0.09 sec(represents the time taken by the heart impulse to travel first through the inter ventricular system and then through the free walls of the ventricles)

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
The brain generates rhythmical potentials which originate in the individual neurons of the brain. These potentials get summated as millions of cell discharge synchronously and appear as a surface waveform, the recording of which is known as the electroencephalogram.
The neurons, like the other cells of the body, are electrically polarized at rest. The interior of the neuron is at a potential of about -70 mV relative to the exterior. When a neuron is exposed to a stimulus above a certain threshold, a nerve impulse, seen as a change in membrane potential, is generated which spreads in the cell resulting in the depolarization of the cell. Shortly afterwards, repolarization occurs.

The EEG signal can be picked up with electrodes either from the scalp or directly from the cerebral cortex. The peak-to-peak amplitude of the waves that can be picked up from the scalp is normally 100V or less while that on the exposed brain, is about 1mV. The frequency varies greatly with different behavioral states.

 Frequency of EEG seems to be affected by the mental activity of the person. Certain characteristic waveforms can be related to epileptic seisures and sleep. An alert,wide awake person shows unsynchorized high frequency EEG.

A drowsy person, particularly one whos eyes are closedproduces large amont of rythemic activity in the range 8 to 13 Hz.
As a person begins to fall asleep,amplitude and frequency decrease and in light sleep large amplitude low frequency waveform emerges. Deeper sleep result in even slower higher amplitude waves.

A person in in sound sleep ,breaks in to an unsynchronized high frequency EEG pattern.this sleep is paradoxical sleep or REM sleep.

EEG range is classified into the following five bands for purposes of EEG analysis: Delta () 0.5 Hz Theta () 4-8 Hz Alpha () 8-13 Hz(relaxed eyes closed-synchronized pattern)

Beta () 13-22 Hz (alert-desynchronized pattern)

Gamma () 220 Hz

ELECTROMYOGRAM (EMG)
The contraction of the skeletal muscle results in the generation of action potentials in the individual muscle fibers, a record of which is known as electromyogram. The activity is similar to that observed in the cardiac muscle, but in the skeletal muscle,re polarization takes place much more rapidly, the action potential lasting only a few milliseconds. Since most EMG measurements are made to obtain an indication of the amount of activity of a given muscle, or a group of muscles, rather than of an individual muscle fiber, the EMG pattern is usually a summation of the individual action potentials from the fibres constituting the muscle or muscles being studied.

The electrical activity of the underlying muscle mass can be observed by means of surface electrodes on the skin. However, it is usually preferred to record the action potentials from individual motor units for better diagnostic information using needle electrodes. In voluntary contraction of the skeletal muscle, the muscle potentials range from 50 V to 5 mV and the duration from 2 to 15 ms. The values vary with the anatomic position of the muscle and the size and location of the electrode. In a relaxed muscle, there are normally no action potentials.

 Electrolytc-Skin Interface: An approximation of the electrolyteskin interface can be had by assuming that the skin acts as a diaphragm arranged between two solutions (electrolyte and body fluids) of different concentrations containing the same ions, which is bound to give potential differences.

The simplest equivalent representation could then be described as a voltage source in series with a parallel combination of a capacitance and resistance. The capacitance represents the charge developed at the phase boundary whereas the resistance depends upon the conditions associated with ion-migration along the phase boundaries and inside the diaphragm.

 Three potentials are found to exist in this circuit , one is due to the bioelectric event (Eb) and the other two are non-physiologic and represent the half-cell potentials (E1 and E2) of the electrodes. Z1 and Z2 are the skin contact impedance of tlmse electrodes and R is the tissue resistance or resistance of the bioelectric generator.

Types of electrodes
a)Microelectrodes:These are used to measure the
bioelectric potential near or with in a single cell.These are also known as intracellular electrodes.

b)Depth and needle electrodes:These are used to measure the bioelectric potentials of the highly localized extracellular regions in brain or bioelectric potentials from specific groups of muscles.
c)Surface electrodes:These are used to measure the potentials available from the surface of the skin and are usedto sense the potentials from heart,brain and nerves.

a)Micro electrodes
they are divided in to metallic or non metallic
Non metallic micro electrode is callded micropipet. They should have smaller diameter and during insertion they shold not damage the cell.

Micro electrodes are located with in the cell and reference electrode is located outside the cell.
Size of the cell is about 50 microns,the diameter of the tip of micro electrodes is ranging from 0.5 to 5 microns.

Electrical Properties of Microelectrodes

Metal Microelectrode

Metal microelectrode with tip placed within cell

Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high impedance amplifiernegative capacitance amplifier!

Equivalent circuits

Electrical Properties of Glass Intracellular Microelectrodes

Glass Micropipette Microelectrode

b)Depth and needle electrodes

Electrode should be sharp for the penetration to obtain highly localized extracellular recordings of bioelectric events, these electrodes are used 1)Depth electrode: to study the electrical activity

of neurons in the superficial layers of brain.

Each electrode is a platinum (90%)-iridium (10%) alloy wire bonded to a central supporting steel wire. The active area of depth electrodes is about 0.5 mm2 . Impedance smaller than micro electrode

Needle electrodes
To reduce the interface impedance and consequently movement artifacts electroencephalpographers use needle to penetrate to scalp for EEG measurements.
They are not inserted in to brain, they merely penetrate in to the skin.

For EMG measurements electrodes are fine insulated wires, so that their tips are in contact with the nerve muscle, or other tissue from which measurements are being made. The remaining portion of wire is covered with some portion of insulation.

2)Needle electrodes
Wire electrodes of platinum or copper is often used for EMG pick up.
The wires are either surgically implanted or introduced by means of hypodermic needle that is later withdrawn ,leaving the wire in the place.

c)Surface electrodes
Generally larger area surface electrodes are used to sense ECG potentials, smaller area electrodes are used to sense EEG and EMG potentials.
i)Metal plate electrodes

Rectangular and circular plates from german silver,nickel silver or nickel plated steel.
Applied on skin with electrode paste.

Typical dc resitance-2 to 10 kilo ohms.

(a) Metal-plate electrode used for application to limbs. (b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape. (c)Disposable foam-pad electrodes, often used with ECG

ii)Suction cup electrode

Well suited for the attachments on flat surface of body and regions were underlying tissue is soft.
Physically large

Has small area because only rim is in contact with the skin

iii)Adhesive plate electrodes

It consists of a light weight metallic screen backed by a pad of electrode paste. The adhesive backing holds the electrode in place and retards the evaporation of electrolyte present in the electrode paste.

iv) Multi point electrode

Practical electrodes for ECG measurement It consist of nearly 1000 fine active points. By this a low resistance contact is obtained with the subject. If the subject has hair on area of interest one can use multipoint electrode without removing hair.

v)Floating electrode
Do not contact with subject directly

Metal plate is held away from the subject by flat washer.

The contact is made via electrolytic bridge

By means of this electrode motion artifact is eliminated.

This is also known as liquid junction electrode.

Transducers
A transducer is a device which senses the bio signals and converts it into bio signals for bio signal processing. Different types based on energy conversion application and so on. a transducer which gives output without the use of an excitation voltage or modulation of carrier signal is called active transducer. a transducer which gives output using an excitation voltage or modulation of carrier signal is called passive transducer.

Active transducers
a) magnetic induction type
b) Piezo electric type

c) Photovoltaic type transducers

d) Thermo electric type transducers

magnetic induction type

magnetic induction type

Used in electro magnetic flow meters
Heart sound micro phones

Pen motors in bio medical recorders.

Piezo electric type

Piezo electric effect
If we apply dynamical pressure on the mechanical axis(y-axis) of the transducer voltage is induced on the electrical axis(x- axis) of the transducer. Piezo electric effect is reversible

Quartz is the natural polar piezo electric material

Barium titanate, pottasiumdihydrogen phosphate, rochelle salt are other commercial peizo electric transducer material. Used as pulse sensor

Photovoltaic type transducers

Ejection of electrons from a metal or semiconductor when illuminated by light or any radiation of suitable wave length-photo electric effect.
To determine sodium ,potassium concentrations in blood. Under suitable conditions, the voltage produced in the silicon photovoltaic cell is directly proportional to the light transmitted through the sample.

Thermo electric type transducers

Seebeck effect
Peltier effect

Used to measure physiological temperatures

Used in remote sensing circuits and biotelemetry circuits where miniature size transducers are used to monitor the temperature.

passive transducer
Uses ac or dc excitation voltage to convert physiological parameters to electrical output.
Resistive transducers eg:straingauge,photoresistor,photodiode, thermistor etc. Principle is that parameter causes change in resistance of the transducer.