EE 2303 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

AIM
To become familiar with the function of different components used in Transmission and Distribution levels of power systems and modelling of these components.

OBJECTIVES
To develop expression for computation of fundamental parameters of lines. To categorize the lines into different classes and develop equivalent circuits for these classes. To analyse the voltage distribution in insulator strings and cables and methods to improve the same.
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INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Electricity Networks
Early days: DC distribution
Difficult to scale up voltage to reduce current Thick cables and short distances to reduce V losses DC distribution limited to a small number of km

AC Distribution
Transformers @ power stations raise generator voltage Transformers @ substations reduce voltage

High V reduces line current, hence size of conductors and distribution losses
More economical to distribute power over long distances

High Voltage DC (HVDC)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission

The Modern T&D System

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Power system components are: 1. Generating Station 2. Transmission Systems (i) Primary Transmissions systems (ii) Secondary Transmissions systems 3. Distribution Systems (i) Primary Distribution Systems (ii) Secondary Distribution Systems

Structure of Electric Power System

Generating station
- Generates A. C power - Normal generating voltage is 11kV Types - Steam power station - Nuclear power station - Hydroelectric power station - Electric Power station - Diesel Power station etc..

Block Diagram of Generating Station

 The generating voltage is stepped up using three phase step up t/f to 132kV in generating station Primary transmission: 132kV is transmitted by three phase three wire overhead system. It goes up to receiving station. Secondary transmission: Here the voltage is stepped down to 33kV and it is transmitted. It ends at a substation. Primary distribution: 33kV is again stepped down to 11kV and is transmitted .This runs along the road sides of the city. Secondary distribution: 11 kV is stepped down to 400V.It forms Secondary distribution. It is the three phase four wire system. Voltage across any two phases is 400V and b/w phase and neutral is 230V.

Operating Voltages
1. Generating Voltage: 6.6, 11, 13.2 or 33 KV 2. High Voltage Transmission: 220, 132, 66 KV 3. Primary Distribution; 3.3, 6.6 KV 4. Low-Voltage Distribution: AC - 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire DC 400/230 V, 3-wire system

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Technical performance and reliability

Considerations in the design of a power line: 1. The amount of active power it has to transmit 2. The distance over which the power must be carried 3. The cost of the power line 4. Aesthetic considerations, urban congestion, ease of installation, expected load growth

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DC TRANSMISSION
ADVANTAGES

1. It requires only two conductors and three for AC transmission 2. There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems 3. Voltage drop will be less due to absense of inductance and voltage regulation will be better 4. No skin effect 16

5. DC line requires less insulation 6. It has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits 7. No stability problems and synchronising difficulties DISADVANTAGES 1. Electric power cannot be generated at high dc voltage (5 MW) 2. It cannot be stepped up for transmission 3. Switches and circuit breaker have limitations 17

AC TRANSMISSION
ADVANTAGES 1. The power can be generated be high voltages (500 MW) 2. The maintenance of AC sub-station is easy and cheaper 3. Step up and step down transformer allows to transmit high voltages and distribute it at safe potential
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AC TRANSMISSION
DISADVANTAGES 1. It requires more copper than dc line 2. Construction is more complicated than dc 3. Due to skin effect the total resistance in the line is increased 4. Ac line has capacitance. There is a continuous loss of power due to chare current even when line is open
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HVDC
High voltage direct current (HVDC) is used to transmit large amounts of power over long distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. When electrical energy is required to be transmitted over very long distances(>800 km), it is more economical to transmit using direct current instead of alternating current.
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HVDC
Advantages: 1. Reduces volume of conductor material 2. Increases transmission efficiency 3. Decreases percentage line drop Limitation: 1. The increased cost of insulating the conductors 2. The increased cost of transformers, switchgear and other terminal apparatus21

EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE AC TRASMISSION SYSTEM

-Due to an increasing need for transmitting greater amount of power , the voltage level is higher - Also for longer lines and high power transfer, higher transmission voltages are necessary. Advantages : 1. Line losses are reduced 2. Efficiency is increased 3. Volume of the conductor material decreases 4. Voltage regulation is improved 5. Economically feasible 6. Power transfer capability of the line increases

7. Installation cost is low Disadvantages: 1. Corona loss and radio interferences occur 2. Heavy supporting structures are needed 3. Errection is difficult 4. With the increase in transmission voltage, insulation required for line conductors also increases and hence the cost also increases 5. The coat of the transformer relays, switchgear equipment increases with the increase in the voltage.

Configuration of EHVAC transmission

Extra High Voltage D.C Transmission

Figure shows the block diagram of EHVDC transmission

Advantages : 1. Requires only two conductors as compared to ac transmission 2. Cheaper for long distances 3. No surge problems due to the absence of L,C and phase displacement 4. No skin effect 5. Voltage drop is less 6. Less corona loss and radio interference 7. No charging current 8. Less insulation 9. Ground can be used as return conductor

10. No switching transients 11. Power control is possible 12. Asynchronous operation is possible 13. No compensation problem 14.No stability problem 15. No reactive power loss 16.Low short circuit current 17. Fast fault clearing time

Disadvantages: 1. Generation of HVDC is not possible due to commutation problem 2. Installation cost is high 3. D.C circuit breaker is costly 4. The system control is complex

FACTS

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FACTS Controllers
Static VAR Compensator - SVC Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator - TCSC Thyristor Controlled Phase Angle Regulator - TCPAR Static Synchronous Compensator - StatCom Solid State Series Compensator - SSSC Unified Power Flow Controller - UPFC

Power Flow Control

Power transfer between areas can be affected by adjusting the net series impedance. Transmission line capability can be increased by installing a series capacitor which reduces the net series impedance.

FACTS Applications
power flow control, increase of transmission capability, voltage control, reactive power compensation, stability improvement, power quality improvement, power conditioning, flicker mitigation, interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages.

Over view of FACTS Devices

Shunt devices application

reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore reduced network losses, keeping of contractual power exchanges with balanced reactive power, compensation of consumers and improvement of power quality especially with huge demand fluctuations like industrial machines, metal melting plants, railway or underground train systems, compensation of Thyristor converters e.g. in conventional HVDC lines, improvement of static or transient stability.

SVC

SVC
SVC act as reactive power absorber/generator depending upon their firing angle 1. Used for load compensation to maintain constant voltage Under slow varying load changes Load rejection, outages of generator and line Under rapidly loads eg. Arc furnace 2. Improves system stablility and system power factor 3. Used for minimisation of transmission losses

SVC
4. Consist of a conductor and capacitor inparallel TCR: Thyristor controlled consist of a fixed reactor in series with a bi-directional thyristor value TSC: Thyristor controlled capacitor consists of a capacitor bank in series with a bi-directional thyristor value and damping reactor (to retune the circuit to avoid parallel resonance with the network)

STATCOM

STATCOM
It is based on Voltage Source Converter It uses gate turn-off thyristor It is 3-phase inverter that is driven from the voltage across a DC capacitor VSC is coupled to circuit thro a 3-phase transformer which provides the safe operating voltage and small reactance An inverter generates a 3-phase voltage in phase with AC system voltages

STATCOM
I lags if Vinverter < Vsystem I leads if Vinverter > Vsystem This device can deliver reactive power under reduced voltage condition and has a better performance It can withstand overload for a short time which svc doesnt It absorbs system harmonics as it acts as an ACTIVE FILTER The main advantage is the reactive power provision is independent from the actual voltage on the connection point

Series devices applications

reduction of series voltage decline in magnitude and angle over a power line, reduction of voltage fluctuations within defined limits during changing power transmissions, improvement of system damping resp. damping of oscillations, limitation of short circuit currents in networks or substations, avoidance of loop flows response power flow adjustments

TCSC

TCSC
Capacitive reactance compensator Controls the line reactance by connecting TCR with mechanically switched capacitor section in series Based on thyristors without the gate turn off capalibility Series compensation used for long transmission lines for 1. compensation of reactive power

TCSC
2. higher power transferability 3. limiting fault currents When TCR firing ranges (FA) 1. FA < 180, reactor becomes non-conducting and series capacitor has normal impedances 2. 90 < FA <180, its capacitive impedance increases 3. FA = 90, fully conducting and total impedance becomes inductive

TCSC
TCSC concept is that it uses an extremely simple main circuit topology.
The capacitor is inserted directly in series with the transmission line and the thyristor controlled inductor is mounted directly in parallel with the capacitor.

Thus no interfacing equipment like e.g. high voltage transformers is required. This makes TCSC much more economical than some other competing FACTS technologies.

SSSC

Back-to-Back devices

UPFC
Unified power flow controller (UPFC) is one of the FACTS devices, which can control power system parameters such as terminal voltage, line impedance and phase angle. Therefore, it can be used not only for power flow control, but also for power system stabilizing control.

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UPFC

UPFC

may control voltage, impedance, and angle impacts active and reactive power flow in line

Basic Operation

UPFC Capabilities
Increase transmission line capacity Direct power flow along selected lines Powerful system oscillation damping Voltage support and regulation Control of active and reactive power flow at both sending- and receiving-end

Operation
Reactive power is generated or absorbed by the shunt inverter to control bus voltage Reactive power is generated or absorbed by the series inverter to control the real and/or reactive power flow on the transmission line

Contd
A portion of the real power flow on the transmission line is drawn from the bus by the shunt inverter to charge the DC capacitor. Real power is inserted into the line through the series inverter.