TQM Unit - 03

Statistical Process Control

Basic Forms of Statistical Sampling for Quality Control

Acceptance Sampling is sampling to accept or reject the immediate lot of product at hand Statistical Process Control is sampling to determine if the process is within acceptable limits

Sampling

The flow of products is broken into discrete batches called lots. Random samples are removed from these lots and measured against certain standards.

A random sample is one in which each unit in the lot has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
If a sample is random, it is likely to be representative of the lot.
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Sampling

Either attributes or variables can be measured and compared to standards. Attributes are characteristics that are classified into one of two categories : defective (not meeting specifications) or non-defective (meeting specifications).

Variables are characteristics that can be measured on a continuous scale (weight, length, etc.).
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Size and Frequency of Samples

As the percentage of lots in samples is increased: the sampling and sampling costs increase, and the quality of products going to customers increases.

Typically, very large samples are too costly. Extremely small samples might suffer from statistical imprecision. Larger samples are ordinarily used when sampling for attributes than for variables.
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Central Limit Theorem

An Important concept in inspection

The central limit theorem is: Sampling distributions can be assumed to be normally distributed even though the population (lot) distributions are not normal.
The theorem allows use of the normal distribution to easily set limits for control charts and acceptance plans for both attributes and variables.
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Sampling Distributions

The sampling distribution can be assumed to be normally distributed unless sample size (n) is extremely small. = The mean of the sampling distribution ( x ) is equal to the population mean (m). The standard error of the sampling distribution (sx ) is smaller than the population standard deviation (sx ) by a factor of 1/ n

Population and Sampling Distributions

f(x) Population Distribution Mean = m Std. Dev. = sx

f(x)

Sampling Distribution of Sample Means

= Mean = x = m x Std. Error = x = n

x
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Control Charts

Primary purpose of control charts is to indicate at a glance when production processes might have changed sufficiently to affect product quality. If the indication is that product quality has deteriorated, or is likely to, then corrective is taken. If the indication is that product quality is better than expected, then it is important to find out why so that it can be maintained. Use of control charts is often referred to as statistical process control (SPC).
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Constructing Control Charts

Vertical axis provides the scale for the sample information that is plotted on the chart. Horizontal axis is the time scale. Horizontal center line is ideally determined from observing the capability of the process. Two additional horizontal lines, the lower and upper control limits, typically are 3 standard deviations below and above, respectively, the center line.
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Constructing Control Charts

If the sample information falls within the lower and upper control limits, the quality of the population is considered to be in control; otherwise quality is judged to be out of control and corrective action should be considered. Two versions of control charts will be examined Control charts for attributes Control charts for variables

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Control Charts for Attributes

Inspection of the units in the sample is performed on an attribute (defective/non-defective) basis.

Information provided from inspecting a sample of size n is the percent defective in a sample, p, or the number of units found to be defective in that sample divided by n.

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Example of Constructing a p-Chart: Required Data

Sample No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

No. of Samples
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Number of defects found in each sample

4 2 5 3 6 4 3 7 1 2 3 2 2 8 3

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Statistical Process Control Formulas: Attribute Measurements (p-Chart)

Given:

p=

Total Number of Defectives Total Number of Observations

sp =

p (1- p) n

Compute control limits:

UCL = p + z sp LCL = p - z sp
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Example of Constructing a p-chart: Step 1

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 n Defectives 100 4 100 2 100 5 100 3 100 6 100 4 100 3 100 7 100 1 100 2 100 3 100 2 100 2 100 8 100 3 p 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.03

1. Calculate the sample proportions, p (these are what can be plotted on the p-chart) for each sample

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Example of Constructing a p-chart: Steps 2&3

2. Calculate the average of the sample proportions

55 p = = 0.036 1500
3. Calculate the standard deviation of the sample proportion

sp =

p (1 - p) = n

.036(1- .036) = .0188 100

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Example of Constructing a p-chart: Step 4

4. Calculate the control limits

UCL = p + z sp LCL = p - z sp

.036 3(.0188)

UCL = 0.0924 LCL = -0.0204 (or 0)

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Example of Constructing a p-Chart: Step 5 5. Plot the individual sample proportions, the average of the proportions, and the control limits
0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 p 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Observation

UCL

LCL

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Example: Attribute Control Chart

Twenty samples, each consisting of 250 units, were selected and examined. The number of defective units found in each sample is shown below.
4 2 1 8 5 5 3 3 2 6 7 4 4 2 5 5 2 3 3 6

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Example: Attribute Control Chart

The manager of the department knows from past experience that, an average of 1.6% of the units are defective. He wants to construct a p chart with 3-standard deviation control limits.

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Example: Attribute Control Chart

p(1 p ) .016(1 .016) .015744 sp .007936 n 250 250

UCL = p 3s p =.016+3(.007936)= .039808 or 3.98% LCL = p 3s p =.016-3(.007936)=-.007808= 0%

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Example: Attribute Control Chart

4 2
0.045 0.040

1 8

5 5

3 3

2 6

7 4

4 2

5 5

2 3

3 6

p Chart for Lincoln Bank

Sample Proportion p

0.035 0.030 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.000 0 5 10 Sample Number 15 20

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Example: Draw a p chart. Sample No. n 1 2 100 100

Percent Defectives 4 3

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

3 6 1 9 5 12 4 3
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Control Charts for Variables

Inspection of the units in the sample is performed on a variable basis. The information provided from inspecting a sample of size n is: Sample mean, x, or the sum of measurement of each unit in the sample divided by n Range, R, of measurements within the sample, or the highest measurement in the sample minus the lowest measurement in the sample

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Control Charts for Variables

In this case two separate control charts are used to monitor two different aspects of the processs output: Central tendency Variability

Central tendency of the output is monitored using the x-chart. Variability of the output is monitored using the Rchart.
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x-Chart

The central line is x, the sum of a number of sample means collected while the process was considered to be in control divided by the number of samples.
=

The 3s lower control limit is x AR The 3s upper control limit is x + AR

Factor A is based on sample size.

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R-Chart

The central line is R, the sum of a number of sample ranges collected while the process was considered to be in control divided by the number of samples. The 3s lower control limit is D1R. The 3s upper control limit is D2R.

Factors D1and D2 are based on sample size.

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3s Control Chart Factors for Variables

Sample Size n 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 Over 25 Control Limit Factor for Sample Mean A 1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.308 0.223 0.180 0.153 0.75(1/ n ) Control Limit Factor for Sample Range D1 D2 0 0 0 0 0.223 0.348 0.414 0.459 0.45+.001n 3.267 2.575 2.282 2.116 1.777 1.652 1.586 1.541 1.55-.0015n
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Example of x-bar and R Charts:

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Obs 1 10.68 10.79 10.78 10.59 10.69 10.75 10.79 10.74 10.77 10.72 10.79 10.62 10.66 10.81 10.66

Obs 2 10.689 10.86 10.667 10.727 10.708 10.714 10.713 10.779 10.773 10.671 10.821 10.802 10.822 10.749 10.681

Obs 3 10.776 10.601 10.838 10.812 10.79 10.738 10.689 10.11 10.641 10.708 10.764 10.818 10.893 10.859 10.644

Obs 4 10.798 10.746 10.785 10.775 10.758 10.719 10.877 10.737 10.644 10.85 10.658 10.872 10.544 10.801 10.747

Obs 5 10.714 10.779 10.723 10.73 10.671 10.606 10.603 10.75 10.725 10.712 10.708 10.727 10.75 10.701 10.728

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Example of x-bar and R charts: Step 1. Calculate sample means, sample ranges, mean of means, and mean of ranges.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Obs 1 10.68 10.79 10.78 10.59 10.69 10.75 10.79 10.74 10.77 10.72 10.79 10.62 10.66 10.81 10.66 Obs 2 10.689 10.86 10.667 10.727 10.708 10.714 10.713 10.779 10.773 10.671 10.821 10.802 10.822 10.749 10.681 Obs 3 10.776 10.601 10.838 10.812 10.79 10.738 10.689 10.11 10.641 10.708 10.764 10.818 10.893 10.859 10.644 Obs 4 10.798 10.746 10.785 10.775 10.758 10.719 10.877 10.737 10.644 10.85 10.658 10.872 10.544 10.801 10.747 Obs 5 10.714 10.779 10.723 10.73 10.671 10.606 10.603 10.75 10.725 10.712 10.708 10.727 10.75 10.701 10.728 Averages Avg 10.732 10.755 10.759 10.727 10.724 10.705 10.735 10.624 10.710 10.732 10.748 10.768 10.733 10.783 10.692 Range 0.116 0.259 0.171 0.221 0.119 0.143 0.274 0.669 0.132 0.179 0.163 0.250 0.349 0.158 0.103

10.728 0.220400

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Example of x-bar and R charts: Step 2. Determine Control Limit Formulas and Necessary Tabled Values

x Chart Control Limits UCL = x + A 2 R LCL = x - A 2 R

R Chart Control Limits UCL = D 4 R LCL = D 3 R
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Example of x-bar and R charts: Steps 3&4. Calculate x-bar Chart and Plot Values

UCL = x + A 2 R 10.728 .58(0.2204 = 10.856 ) LCL = x - A 2 R 10.728- .58(0.2204 = 10.601 )

1 0 .9 0 0 1 0 .8 5 0 1 0 .8 0 0

UCL

M ea n s

1 0 .7 5 0 1 0 .7 0 0 1 0 .6 5 0 1 0 .6 0 0 1 0 .5 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

LCL

S am p le

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Example of x-bar and R charts: Steps 5&6. Calculate R-chart and Plot Values

UCL = D 4 R ( 2.11)( 0.2204 ) 0.46504 LCL = D 3 R (0)( 0.2204 ) 0

0 .8 0 0 0 .7 0 0 0 .6 0 0 0 .5 0 0 R 0 .4 0 0 0 .3 0 0 0 .2 0 0 0 .1 0 0 0 .0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 S a m p le 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

UCL

LCL 33

Example 2: Variable Control Chart

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 50.22 50.13 50.30 49.91 50.11 49.78 49.84 50.08 49.89 50.11 49.86 49.99 50.20 49.84 50.30 50.04 49.90 49.95 50.07 50.03 2 49.91 50.09 50.11 50.20 49.89 50.07 49.92 49.88 50.10 50.16 49.79 50.03 49.81 49.97 49.83 50.19 50.16 50.02 49.85 49.94 3 50.05 50.17 49.91 50.16 49.94 49.78 50.11 49.90 50.14 50.20 50.06 49.92 49.89 50.08 50.04 49.92 49.86 50.13 49.89 50.00 4 50.12 50.23 49.89 50.05 50.17 49.79 50.04 49.97 49.99 50.06 50.11 50.17 49.88 50.22 49.78 50.17 49.98 49.91 50.27 49.79 5 49.79 50.04 50.09 50.24 49.88 50.04 49.81 49.78 49.90 50.06 49.97 50.19 50.11 49.82 50.23 50.01 49.83 49.89 49.78 50.07

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Variable Control Chart

Harry Coates wants to construct x and R charts at the bag-filling operation for Meow Chow cat food. He has determined that when the filling operation is functioning correctly, bags of cat food average 50.01 pounds and regularly-taken 5-bag samples have an average range of .322 pounds.

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Variable Control Chart

Sample Mean Chart = x = 50.01, R = .322, n = 5 = UCL = x + AR = 50.01 + .577(.322) = 50.196 = LCL = x - AR = 50.01 - .577(.322) = 49.824

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Variable Control Chart

x Chart for Meow Chow
50.3 50.2
Sample Mean
UCL

50.1 50.0 49.9 49.8 49.7 0 5 10 Sample Number 15 20

LCL

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Variable Control Chart

Sample Range Chart = x = 50.01, R = .322, n = 5 UCL = RD2 = .322(2.116) = .681 LCL = RD1 = .322(0) = 0

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Variable Control Chart

A
0.80

R Chart for Meow Chow

Sample Range R

0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00

UCL

LCL

10 Sample Number

15

20

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Example: Draw an X bar and R chart

1 2 3 4 5 Obs 1 50.04 49.90 49.95 50.07 50.03 Obs 2 50.19 50.16 50.02 49.85 49.94 Obs 3 49.92 49.86 50.13 49.89 50.00 Obs 4 50.17 49.98 49.91 50.27 49.79 Obs 5 50.01 49.83 49.89 49.78 50.07

UCL = x + AR LCL = x - AR

Control Limit Factor Control Limit Factor Sample for Sample Mean for Sample Range Size n A D1 D2

UCL = RD2 LCL = RD1

2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25

1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.308 0.223 0.180 0.153

0 0 0 0 0.223 0.348 0.414 0.459

3.267 2.575 2.282 2.116 1.777 1.652 1.586 1.54140

Advantages:
Economy Less handling damage Fewer inspectors Upgrading of the inspection job Applicability to destructive testing Entire lot rejection (motivation for improvement)

Disadvantages:
Risks of accepting bad lots and rejecting good lots Added planning and documentation Sample provides less information than 100-percent inspection

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