Community Ecology Natural Enemies Parasites

1. How do parasites impact their host populations?

2. How does aquatic ecology relate to issues of human health? 3. Are parasites responsible for the recent increase in amphibian deformities?

Sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) attached to a lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush)

Parasitism an interaction in which one organism gains resources at the expense of the other. Parasite An organism which gains resources at the expense of its host.
Daphnia dentifera with bacterial parasite

Host The organism necessary for the development of a parasite

Sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) attached to a lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush)

Ectoparasite a parasite that lives on the outside of its host.

Daphnia dentifera with bacterial parasite

Endoparasite a parasite that lives inside its host

Vector an organism that transmits the parasite from host to host

General life-cycle of parasites:

1. Find a host. This process can be active or passive.

2. Attach to or enter the host. This process can also be active or passive.

3. Overcome host defenses.

Invertebrates do not have a well-developed immune system

General life-cycle of parasites:

4. Gain resources from the host.

5. Reproduce.

6. Disperse young to new hosts.

We know that parasites are everywhere.... ...but for many systems we do not understand the role of these parasites in population and community ecology.

Questions of interest for both limnology and human health.

Human health and aquatic ecology

Mosquitoes are vectors for at least 30 human diseases West Nile Virus Encephalitis Yellow Fever Malaria

Many other human diseases have an aquatic phase Schistosomiasis Cholera

Since mid 1990s, increased reports of amphibian deformities

Deformities in Pennsylvania Deformed American toads (Bufo americanus) wood frogs (Rana sylvatica)

3 main hypotheses: UV, parasites, chemicals

Johnson et al. (2002) found a clear correlation between parasite occurrence and the frequency of abnormalities
Also conducted experiments

Johnson et al. 1999

Life cycle of tremadodes (flukes, flatworms)

http://limnology.wisc.edu/personnel/p ieter/Hidden%20Stuff/Amphibian%2 0Deformities%20Research.htm

Trematode cercariae, the infective stage that attacks frogs

Kiesecker (2002) wanted to simultaneously test the role of parasites and chemicals
Used 6 naturally occurring ponds: 3 with high agricultural runoff (+ chemicals) 3 without agricultural runoff (- chemicals) Built 6 cages in each pond: 3 that allowed parasites (+ parasites) 3 that did not allow parasites ( - parasites)
+ parasite + chemicals - chemicals - parasite

+P, +C +P, -C

-P, +C -P, -C

6 natural ponds
Ponds 1-3

High agricultural runoff Atrazine Malathion

Ponds 4-6

Low agricultural runoff No Atrazine or Malathion detected

6 cages per pond

Add tadpoles to the cages

6 cages per pond In each pond: 3 cages allowed the parasite in (exposed)
3 cages kept the parasite out (protected/unexposed)

Percentage of deformities in adult frogs:

Pond 1 2 3 4 5 6

Exposed 23% 34% 27% 3% 7% 4%

Protected 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%

Green = + chemicals Blue = - chemicals

Why do pesticides increase occurrence of developmental deformities when tadpoles are exposed to parasites?

Do chemicals weaken the immune system and the tadpoles ability to fight off infection?

Laboratory experiment:

Atrazine (weed control on crops) Malathion (mosquitoes and insect control on crops) Esfenvalerate (insect control on crops)

Measure infection and immune system response

Control (no chemicals)

Expose to 2 parasites

Atrazine

Summary of laboratory results

Malathion

Esfenvalerate

Concepts to know
What do we know about parasites in aquatic systems? What is left to learn?

What are the characteristics of parasite life cycles?

Are parasites the only cause of deformities in frogs?

Practice Question
Recently, Kagami et al. (2004) suggested a complex interaction between Daphnia, Asterionella (diatom) and a fungal parasite of the diatom (Zygorhizidium). The life-cycle of this parasite includes a freeliving fungal zoospore that is the same size and shape as small, edible algal cells. When a free zoospore encounters a diatom cell, it attaches to it. The key to this complex interaction between Daphnia, the diatom and the diatoms parasite is the relationship depicted in Figure 1.

Please explain the nature of this complex relationship. A complete answer will consider the typical interaction between a Daphnia and a diatom, the typical interaction between a diatom and its parasite, and how the presence of Daphnia may alter the host-parasite interaction.