LECTURE NOTES

ON

SOLAR PHOTVOLTAICS
BY

DR.A.M.SURENDRA KUMAR

Solar cell
A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the light source is unspecified. Fundamentally, the device needs to fulfill only two functions: photogeneration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in a light-absorbing material, and separation of the charge carriers to a conductive contact that will transmit the electricity (simply put, carrying electrons off through a metal contact into a wire or other circuit). This conversion is called the photovoltaic effect, and the field of research related to solar cells is known as photovoltaics. Solar cells have many applications. They have long been used in situations where electrical power from the grid is unavailable, such as in remote area power systems, Earth-orbiting satellites and space probes, consumer systems, e.g. handheld calculators or wrist watches, remote radiotelephones and water pumping applications. More recently, solar cells are starting to be used in assemblies of solar modules (photovoltaic arrays) connected to the electricity grid through an inverter, often in combination with a net metering arrangement.

PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of sunlight into electricity through a photovoltaic (PVs) cell, commonly called a solar cell. A photovoltaic cell is a non mechanical device usually made from silicon alloys. Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed. Only the absorbed photons provide energy to

generate electricity. When enough sunlight (energy) is absorbed by the material (a semiconductor), electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms. Special treatment of the material surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to free electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the surface.

When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed. When many electrons, each carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of the cell, the resulting imbalance of charge between the cell's front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential like the negative and positive terminals of a battery. When the two surfaces are connected through an external load, electricity flows.
The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a PV system. Individual cells can vary in size from about 1 cm (1/2 inch) to about 10 cm (4 inches) across. However, one cell only produces 1 or 2 watts, which isn't enough power for most applications. To increase power output, cells are electrically connected into a packaged weather-tight module. Modules can be further connected to form an array. The term array refers to the entire generating plant, whether it is made up of one or several thousand modules. As many modules as needed can be connected to form the array size (power output) needed.

 The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon sunlight. Climate conditions (e.g., clouds, fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar energy received by a PV array and, in turn, its performance. Most current technology photovoltaic modules are about 10 percent efficient in converting sunlight with further research being conducted to raise this efficiency to 20 percent. The pv cell was discovered in 1954 by Bell Telephone researchers examining the sensitivity of a properly prepared silicon wafer to sunlight. Beginning in the late 1950s, pvs were used to power U.S. space satellites. The success of PVs in space generated commercial applications for pv technology. The simplest photovoltaic systems power many of the small calculators and wrist watches used everyday. More complicated systems provide electricity to pump water, power communications equipment, and even provide electricity to our homes.

Photovoltaic conversion is useful for several reasons. Conversion from sunlight to electricity is direct, so that bulky mechanical generator systems are unnecessary. The modular characteristic of photovoltaic energy allows arrays to be installed quickly and in any size required or allowed.
Also, the environmental impact of a photovoltaic system is minimal, requiring no water for system cooling and generating no by-products. Photovoltaic cells, like batteries, generate direct current (DC) which is generally used for small loads (electronic equipment). When DC from photovoltaic cells is used for commercial applications or sold to electric utilities using the electric grid, it must be converted to alternating current (AC) using inverters, solid state devices that convert DC power to AC. Historically, pvs have been used at remote sites to provide electricity. However, a market for distributed generation from PVs may be developing with the unbundling of transmission and distribution costs due to electric deregulation. The siting of numerous small-scale generators in electric distribution feeders could improve the economics and reliability of the distribution system.

Steckborn, Switzerland. First church in the world with solar power

 New Solar Photovoltaic Cell Efficiency Record: 42.8% A consortium of research teams has achieved a new record in photovoltaic cell efficiency. 5:14 p.m., July 23, 2007-- Using a novel technology that adds multiple innovations to a very high-performance crystalline silicon solar cell platform, a consortium led by the University of Delaware has achieved a record-breaking combined solar cell efficiency of 42.8 percent from sunlight at standard terrestrial conditions. That number is a significant advance from the current record of 40.7 percent announced in December and demonstrates an important milestone on the path to the 50 percent efficiency goal set by the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). In November 2005, the UD-led consortium received approximately $13 million in funding for the initial phases of the DARPA Very High Efficiency Solar Cell (VHESC) program to develop affordable portable solar cell battery chargers

 The following animation illustrates how a solar cell cut from a single crystal of Silicon is able to convert sunlight into electricity. The bottom layer is doped with a P type material such as Aluminum, Gallium or Indium to produce holes (the green circles). The N type layer is doped with Phosphorous, Arsenic or Antimony to create mobile electrons (the blue dots). The animation has two phases. The dark phase in which no light is necessary and the light phase in which light is necessary. DARK PHASE: Initially no charge difference exists between the barrier junction. However because of the crystalline nature of Silicon electrons unbounded by a stable octet in the N layer have a tendency to migrate across the junction barrier to form a stable octet in the P layer. When this happens a difference in potential is set up between the two layers. LIGHT PHASE: Electrons become excited when light quanta penetrates into the P layer. The excited electrons have two choices of movement. They may migrate through the external circuit or short circuit there way across the barrier junction. If the photoelectric circuit is constructed correctly they will find their way back to the N junction through the external circuit.

 A PV system consists of 1. solar cell array 2. Load Leveler 3. Storage system 4. Tracking system

 Solar cells are interconnected in series/parallel combinations to form modules These modules are hermetically sealed for protection against corrosion, moisture, pollution and weathering. A combination of suitable modules constitutes an array 1 Sq.m of fixed array facing south yields nearly 0.5 kWH of electrical energy on a normal sunny day. Solar PV system can produce an output only if sunlight is present. If it is required to be used during non-sunshine hours, a suitable system of storage batteries will be required

 1. SOLAR ARRAY: Large or small, which converts the insolation to useful DC electrical power 2. BLOCKING DIODE : Which lets the array generated power flow only towards the battery or grid 3. BATTERY STORAGE : In which the solar generated electric energy may stored. 4.INVERTER/ CONVERTER: Converts DC into AC

SOLAR CELL MODULES(SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAYS)

1. TRACKING ARRAY: It is defined as one which is always kept

mechanically perpendicular to the sun ray line so that all times it

intercepts the maximum insolation. 2. FIXED ARRAY: It is usually oriented east west and tilted up at an

angle approximately equal to the latitude of the site. Fixed array is mechanically simpler than the tracking array. CLASSIFICATION : 1. FLAT PLATE ARRAYS: 2. CONCENTRATING ARRAYS

SOLAR CELL CONNECTING ARRANGEMENTS:

1. CONNECT IN PARREL TO ACHIEVE DESIRED CURRENT

2. STACKED IN SERIES

TO ACHIEVE THE DESIRED VOLTAGE

OPTIMUM OPERATING VOLTAGE IS 0.45 VOLT at normal temperature.

CURRENT IN FULL SUNLIGHT --- 270amp/m2

EXAMPLE : EXPOSED AREA OF A CELL : 40 x 10-4SQ.m CURRENT WOULD BE --- 1.08 amp ELECTRIC POWER OUTPUT - 0.45 x 1.08 = 0.49 WATTS, IN FULL SUNLIGHT.

A DECREASE (OR INCREASE) IN THE SOLAR RADIATION HAS VOLTAGE

1. LESS EFFECT ON

2. CURRENT AND POWER ARE DECREASED(INCREASED) PROPORTIONATELY BY COMBINING A NO.OF SOLAR CELLS IN SERIES 1. THE VOLTAGE IS INCREASED 2. CURRENT IS UNCHANGED EXAMPLE : 1. FOR 110VOLTS , WOULD REQUIRE 110/0.45 = 244 CELLS IN SERIES 2. TO INCREASE CURRENT OUTPUT, 244 CELLS WOULD BE CONNECTED IN PARREL

APPLICATION OF SOLAR PHOTO VOLTAIC CELL