Introduction to Artificial Intelligence 1.

Introduction Knowledge base system is a system that has a knowledge as a central core for its proper functioning. Intelligent systems are those systems that utilizes knowledge in an intelligent way. The common name for intelligent is Artificial intelligence system. Knowledge base is the key for success for Artificial intelligent system. "Artificial Intelligence commonly abbreviated as AI, also known as machine intelligence is the process of developing algorithms that make machines are to make seemingly intelligent decisions or act as if possessing intelligence of a human scale. Artificial Intelligence is a branch of Science which deals with helping machines finds solutions to complex problems in a more human-like fashion. This generally involves borrowing characteristics from human intelligence, and applying them as algorithms in a computer friendly way. Intelligence: is the ability to acquire, understand and apply knowledge (or) the ability to exercise thought and reason. Intelligent embodies all of the knowledge and feats, both conscious and 1 unconscious, which we have acquired through study and experience.

 Knowledge: is the awareness and understanding of facts, truths or information gained in the form of experience or learning through introspection. Artificial Intelligence aims to improve machine behavior in tackling such complex tasks. 1.2 Branches of AI Over the past five decades, AI research has mostly been focusing on solving specific problems. Numerous solutions have been devised and improved to do so efficiently and reliably. This explains why the field of Artificial Intelligence is split into many branches, ranging from Pattern Recognition to Artificial Life, including Evolutionary Computation and Planning. The idea is to develop an intelligent systems that has human level intelligence or better. Natural Language Processing: to enable machines to successfully communicate in English like languages, understanding the domain of the text. Knowledge Representation: Facts about the world have to be represented in some way. Usually languages of mathematical logic are used. Common sense knowledge and reasoning: This is the area in which AI is farthest from human-level, in spite of the fact that it has been an active research area since the 1950s. While there has been considerable progress, e.g. in developing systems of non-monotonic reasoning and theories of action, yet more new ideas are needed. Machine Learning: to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate patterns. Computer vision: The world is composed of three-dimensional objects, but the inputs to the human eye and computers' TV cameras are two dimensional. 2

Expert Systems: AI programs that achieve expert-level competence in solving problems in task areas by bringing to bear a body of knowledge about specific tasks are called knowledge-based or expert systems. Genetic algorithms Genetic Algorithms are adaptive heuristic search algorithm premised on the evolutionary ideas of natural selection and genetic. Neural Networks: A neural network is an interconnected group of neurons. And others.

1.3 Some Application areas of AI

Speech synthesis Expert Systems Theorem Proving Robotics Natural langauage Vision Systems

Application Area of AI

1.4 What is AI(Artificial Intelligence)

Different Scholars define AI differently
AI as a system that think humanly AI as a system that think rationally Concerned with behavior AI as a system that act humanly AI as a system that act rationally

Concerned with thought processing and reason

Thinking humanly: Cognitive modeling

Requires scientific theories of internal activities of the brain. How to validate? Requires 1) Predicting and Testing behavior of human subjects(top-down). 2) Direct identification from neurological data(bottom-up) Study on mental processing in logic of human being is not yet fertile. AI as system that think humanly the automation of activities that we associate with human thinking, activities such as decision making, problem solving, learning . AI as system that act humanly the act of creating machines that perform functions that require intelligence when performed by people.

Thinking rationally Right thinking is related to irrefutable reasoning process. Require structure that always gave correct conclusion given correct premises. Logic is the key to design and implement an agent that think rationally. Several Greek schools developed various forms of logic: notation and rules of derivation for thoughts. Direct line through mathematics and philosophy to modern AI. Problems: 1. Not all intelligent behavior is mediated by logical deliberation(unable to take informal knowledge for decision making process) 2. What is the purpose of thinking? What thoughts should I have?( there is a big difference between being able to solve a problem in principle and doing so in practice)
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AI as system that think rationally

A system is said to be rational if it does the right thing given what it knows. The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models. The study of the computational that make it possible to perceive ,reason, and act. AI as system that act rationally
computational intelligence is the study of the design of intelligent agent. AI..is concerned with intelligent behavior in artifact. Acting rationally: rational agent Means acting so as to achieve ones goals, given ones belief. In this approach, AI is viewed as the study and construction of rational agent. Rational behavior. Doing the right thing The right thing: that which is expected to maximize goal achievement. Given the available information. Doesnt necessary involves thinking:- e.g blinking reflex . -But thinking should be in the service of rational action. One way of acting rationally is to reason logically to the action. This indicates, making correct inference is part of being a rational agent. But rationality doesnt require correct inference because sometime without having correct thing to do, agent must act rationally.
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1.5 Foundations of AI
The big question: How does the mind arise from the brain? Philosophy, logic, methods of reasoning Mathematics formal representation and proof algorithms, computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractability, probability Psychology adaptation, perception Linguistics knowledge representation, grammar Neuroscience physical substrate for mental activity Control theory simple optimal agent designs and so on.

Reading assignment History of AI and different types of system

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2. Intelligent Agent An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators. Assumption: Every agent can perceive its own actions (but not always the effects)

Human agent:
o Eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors o Hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts for actuators

Robotic agent:
o Cameras and infrared range finders for sensors; o Various motors for actuator

It is also useful to think of intelligent systems as being agents, either: With their own goals or That act on behalf of someone (a user) An agent is an entity that exists in an environment and that acts on that environment based on its perceptions of the environment An intelligent agent acts to further its own interests (or those of a user).

An intelligent agent is a computer system capable of flexible autonomous action in some environment By flexible, we mean: reactive pro-active social
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Reactivity fixed, the program need If a programs environment is guaranteed to be

never worry about its own success or failure program just executes blindly Example of fixed environment: compiler The real world is not like that: things change, information is incomplete. Many (most?) interesting environments are dynamic Software is hard to build for dynamic domains: program must take into account possibility of failure ask itself whether it is worth executing! A reactive system is one that maintains an ongoing interaction with its environment, and responds to changes that occur in it (in time for the response to be useful)

Proactiveness
Reacting to an environment is easy (e.g., stimulus response rules) But we generally want agents to do things for us Hence goal directed behavior Pro-activeness = generating and attempting to achieve goals; not driven solely by events; taking the initiative 9 Recognizing opportunities

HOW AGENTS SHOULD ACT A rational agent is one that does the right thing for the perceived data from the environment. Even though doing right thing is ambiguous concept it is the one that will cause the agent to be most successful. That leaves us with the problem of deciding how and when to evaluate the agents success.

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 Agents and environments

The interaction of agent and its environment

Percept: agents perceptual input at any given instant Percept sequence: complete history of everything the agent has ever perceived An agents choice of action at any given instant can depend on the entire percept sequence observed to date An agents behavior is described by the agent function which maps from percept histories to actions: [f: P* A] We can imagine tabulating the agent function that describes any given agent (External characterization) Internally, the agent function will be implemented by an agent program which runs on the physical architecture to produce f 11 agent = architecture + program

 Require more flexible interaction with the environment, the ability to modify ones goals, knowledge that be applied flexibly to different situations.

Degrees of Intelligence
Building an intelligent system as capable as humans remains an elusive goal. However, systems have been built which exhibit various specialized degrees of intelligence. Formalisms and algorithmic ideas have been identified as being useful in the construction of these intelligent systems. Together these formalisms and algorithms form the foundation of our attempt to understand intelligence as a computational process. In this course we will study some of these formalisms and see how they can be used to achieve various degrees of intelligence.
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Vacuum-cleaner world

One simple function is : if the current square is dirty then suck, otherwise move to the other square
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Rational agents

Rational agent is one that act rationally. It is action is measured to get its performance. Performance measure: Subjective and Objective Subjective measure : E. g. How happy is the agent at the end of action. Subjective measure is not better Objective measure : needs standard to measure success. E.g., performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner agent could be amount of dirt cleaned up, amount of time taken, amount of electricity consumed, amount of noise generated, etc. As a general rule, it is better to design performance measures according to what one actually wants in the environment. Rather than according to how one thinks the agent should behave (amount of dirt cleaned vs a clean floor) A more suitable measure would reward the agent for having a clean floor Omniscience agent is different from rational agent. It is an agent that knows the actual outcome of its action.

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Environment types
Fully observable vs. partially observable Deterministic vs. stochastic Episodic vs. sequential Static vs. dynamic Discrete vs. continuous Single agent vs. multiagent

Environment types Fully observable vs. partially observable:

An environment is fully observable if an agent's sensors give it access to the complete state of the environment at each point in time. Fully observable environments are convenient, because the agent need not maintain any internal state to keep track of the world An environment might be partially observable because of noisy and inaccurate sensors or because parts of the state are simply missing from the sensor data Examples: vacuum cleaner with local dirt sensor, taxi driver
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Deterministic vs. stochastic:

The environment is deterministic if the next state of the environment is completely determined by the current state and the action executed by the agent. In principle, an agent need not worry about uncertainty in a fully observable, deterministic environment. If the environment is partially observable then it could appear to be stochastic. E.g Vacuum world is deterministic while taxi driver is not If the environment is deterministic except for the actions of other agents, then the environment is strategic

Episodic vs. sequential:

In episodic environments, the agent's experience is divided into atomic "episodes" (each episode consists of the agent perceiving and then performing a single action), and the choice of action in each episode depends only on the episode itself. Examples: classification tasks In sequential environments, the current decision could affect all future decisions. Examples: chess and taxi driver
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Static vs. dynamic:

The environment is unchanged while an agent is deliberating. Static environments are easy to deal with because the agent need not keep looking at the world while it is deciding on the action or need it worry about the passage of time. Dynamic environments continuously ask the agent what it wants to do. The environment is semi-dynamic if the environment itself does not change with the passage of time but the agent's performance score Does. Examples: taxi driving is dynamic, chess when played with a clock is semi-dynamic, crossword puzzles are static

Discrete vs. continuous:

A limited number of distinct, clearly defined states, percepts and actions. Examples: Chess has finite number of discrete states, and has discrete set of percepts and actions. Taxi driving has continuous states, and actions

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Single agent vs. multiagent:

An agent operating by itself in an environment is single agent. Examples: Crossword is a single agent while chess is two-agents Question: Does an agent A have to treat an object B as an agent or can it be treated as a stochastically behaving object Whether B's behaviour is best described by as maximizing a performance measure whose value depends on agent's A behaviour Examples: chess is a competitive multiagent environment while taxi driving is a partially cooperative multiagent environment
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Summary Environment types

Fully observable Deterministic Episodic Static Discrete Single agent
Chess with Chess without a clock a clock Yes Yes Strategic Strategic No No No Semi Yes Yes Yes No No Taxi driving

No
No No No No

The environment type largely determines the agent desig The real world is (of course) partially observable, stochastic, sequential, dynamic, continuous, multi-agent

Reading assignment about Agent Application and PEAS

Structure of intelligent agent

Agent functions and programs
An agent is completely specified by the agent function mapping percept sequences to actions One agent function (or a small equivalence class) is rational Aim: find a way to implement the rational agent function concisely -> design an agent program. Agent = agent program + architecture Architecture: some sort of computing device with physical sensors and actuators (PC, robotic car)should be appropriate: walk action requires legs. Agent functions and programs Agent program: Takes the current percept as input from the sensors Return an action to the actuators While agent function takes the whole percept history, agent program takes just the current percept as input which the only available input from the environment The agent need to remember the whole percept sequence, if it needs it.

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Table-lookup agent
A trivial agent program: keeps track of the percept sequence and then uses it to index into a table of actions to decide what to do. The designers must construct the table that contains the appropriate action for every possible percept sequence. Function TABLE-DRIVEN-AGENT(percept) returns an action static: percepts, a sequence, initially empty table, a table of actions, indexed by percept sequences, initially fully specified append percept to the end of percepts action <--LOOKUP(percepts, table)
return action

Drawbacks:
Huge table Take a long time to build the table No autonomy Even with learning, need a long time to learn the table entries

Agent types
Four basic types in order of increasing generality: Simple reflex agents Model-based reflex agents Goal-based agents Utility-based agents Learning agents

Simple reflex agents

Model-based reflex agents

Goal-based agents

Utility-based agents

Learning agents