Basic Research

Sources of human knowledge

Intuition Trial

and error Tradition Authority Logical reasoning (inductive and deductive)

What is research?
Kerlinger

(1986) defines research as the systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.

Nursing research systematic search for and validation of knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession (Polit and Hungler,1999) Clinical nursing research used to indicate nursing research that involves clients or studies that have the potential for affecting the care of clients. Scientific Method uses empirical data, gathered through the sense organs. Problem solving attempts to seek a solution to a problem that exists for a person or for persons in a given setting.

Steps in the research process

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.
10. 11.

Statement of the problem Literature review and related studies Theoretical/conceptual framework Operationalize variables Formulate the hypotheses Research design (methodology) Sampling Data collection Analyze and interpret data Implications and Recommendations Research Utilization and Dissemination

Scientific Method

Research Process

Nursing Process

State the problem

Gather facts (collect and organize data) Devise experiments to gather facts Test the hypotheses
Make the generalizations/deductions Check the truth of the generalization or deduction against reality by means of more experiments and fact gathering

Formulate and delimit the problem Review the related literature

Develop a theoretical framework Identify the variables Formulate the hypotheses Select a research design Collect the data Analyze the data Interpret the results Communicate the findings

Gather information

Classify data
Make inferences about the

problem
Make a nursing diagnosis Develop a plan of care

Evaluate interventions

Kinds and classifications of research

According to purpose ( Trow) 1. Predictive/prognostic 2. Directive( remedy unsatisfactory conditions) 3. Illuminative According to goal:
1.

2.

Pure or basic research (development of theories) Applied research

According to levels of investigation (French)

Exploratory research (studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation) Descriptive ( studies the relationships of variables) Experimental ( studies the effects of the variables on each other)

According to the type of analysis (Weiss) Analytic research ( attempts to identify and isolate the components of the research situation) Holistic research (begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the system first and then on its internal relationships)

1.

1.

2.

2.

3.

According to scope

1.

Action research done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is not so big - almost problem solving

1.

According to choice of answers to problems (Ackoff) Evaluation research

all possible courses of action are specified and identified and the research tries to find the most advantageous

2.

Developmental research focus is on

finding or developing a more suitable instrument or process than has been avail;able.

1.

According to statistical content Quantitative or statistical research one in

which inferential statistics are utilized to determine the results of the study

According to time element (Best) Historical Descriptive Experimental

1. 2. 3.

2.

Non-quantitative
research descriptive data are gathered

Exploratory studies conducted when little is known about the topic of interest. Descriptive the phenomenon of interest may have already been studied in the past, and there is enough information to ask questions about the relationship between variables Explanatory search for causal explanations. The researcher exercises control over the research situation by manipulating one or more of the variables and examining the influence of this manipulation on another variable (s).

According to field of activity

Sociological research Social Psychological Anthropological Physical Chemical Industrial Economics Health Nursing, etc.

The Research Problem

Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. Answers the question Why? why is there an investigation, inquiry or study? The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the question what? The place or locale

The Literature Review

Extensive,exhaustive, systematic , and critical examination of publications relevant to the research project (Seaman and Verhonick, 1982) Conceptual literature published material dealing with the theory that underlies the research Data based literature composed of all published research studies dealing with the problem of interest.

Experimental Research

concerned with cause-effect relationships involve manipulation or control of the IV (cause) and the measurement of the DV (effect) Validity of Experimental Designs controlling extraneous variables ( confounding/intervening) that may influence study results. Extraneous variables are those variables that the researcher is not able to control, or does not choose to control, and that may influence the results of a study.

Symbolic designs:

presentation

of

research

R = random assignment of subjects to groups O = observation or measurement of dependent variable X = experimental treatment or intervention

TYPES OF EXPEREMENTAL DESIGNS:

True Experimental Designs 3 basic criteria:

The researcher manipulates the experimental variables At least one experimental and one comparison groups are included in the study Subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the comparison group Manipulation means that the IV/experimental variable is controlled by the researcher

3 types of true experimental designs:

Pre-test-posttest control group design R O1 x O2 (Experimental group) R O1 c O2 (Comparison group)

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

subjects are randomly assigned to groups, (b) the experimental group receives the experimental treatment and the comparison group receives the routine treatment or no treatment and (c) a posttest is given to both groups R O x O1 (Experimental group) R O c O1(Comparison group)

Solomon Four-Group Design

R O1 x O2 (Experimental group) R O1 c O2 (Comparison group) R O x O1 (Experimental group) R O c O1(Comparison group)

Quasiexperimental Designs
Non-equivalent Control Group Design O x O2 (Experimental group) O c O2(Comparison group) Time series O1O2O3 X O4O5O6

Preexperimental Designs

One-shot Case Study

XO
One-group Pre-test Posttest Design O1 X O2

Non-Experimental Research Designs

1. 2.

Survey studies Interrelationship studies a. Correlational studies b. Ex post facto studies c. prediction studies d. Developmental Studies 1. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies 2. Retrospective and Prospective studies

The scientific approach

offers a logical, orderly, and objective means of generating idea

The scientific method of research

1.

2.

3.

4. 5.

Determining (recognizing) the problem Forming the hypothesis Doing the library search Designing the study Analyzing the data

The Problem and its setting

Related Literature and Studies Methods of research and procedures

6. Determining implications and conclusions from the findings 7. Developing the instruments for collecting data 8. Making recommendations for further research

Summary, Conclusions and recommendations

Principles of the scientific method

1. 2. 3.

4.

Rigid control Objectivity Systematic organization Rigorous standards

Collection of Data

Classification according to source 1. Primary Data 2. Secondary Data Categories of data gathered from respondents 1. Facts 2. Attitudes and feelings 3. Judgments 4. Psychomotor skills 5. Results of tests and experiments

Clerical tools: Questionnaire Interview Empirical observation methods Registration method Testing method Experimental method Liberty method

Mechanical tools: Microscopes Thermometers cameras

Questionnaire
The Free- Answer Type The Guided Response type

Interview

Standardized Interview Non-standardized interview Semi-standardized interview Focused Interview Non-directive Interview

The Interview Instrument

Interview Guide - only provides ideas and allows the interviewer to pursue relevant topics indepth Interview schedule (same as the questionnaire) but the difference is that it is read to the respondent.

Observation
Types: Participant and non-participant observation Structured and non-structured observation Controlled and uncontrolled observation

Recording the Results of the Observation

Checklist Rating scales Anecdotal forms Mechanical recording Stenographic recording

Sampling
Element unit about which inferential is collected and which provides the basis of analysis Population theoretically specific aggregation of the elements

Study population aggregation of elements from which the sample is actually selected.
Sampling unit element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage of sampling ( same as the elements) Sampling frame the actual list of sampling units from which the sample, or some stage of sample, is selected.

Parameter summary of description of a given variable in a population

Observation unit or unit of data collection is an element or aggregation of elements from which information is collected.

Types of sampling
Probability

sampling Non-probability sampling

Probability Sampling
Pure random Systematic Stratified -cluster

Non-Probability
Accidental Quota convenience

Ethical considerations in research

1. 2.

3.
4. 5. 6. 7.

Autonomy informed consent Right to privacy Anonymity Confidentiality Beneficence Nonmaleficence Social justice

Elements of ethical research

1. 2.

3. 4.

Protecting subjects rights Balancing the benefits and risks in the study Obtaining the informed consent Obtaining institutional approval for research