Human Anatomy

An Introduction to Anatomy Chapter 1

Introduction to Anatomy
Anatomy is a broad field of science in which the body is studied at different levels. Definition of anatomy (I dissect): study of the human body or the science of form (morphology)

Physiology is the study of body function. Theme: Structure Determines Function .

Anatomy Terminology
Mastery of the Language of Anatomy is essential for your success in this class
A. Pay attention to Greek and Latin roots

B. To learn this new language: - Create vocabulary flashcards pertaining to each chapter - Practice the new vocabulary consistently - Recognize that different terms can be used to describe the same structure

Metric System (Appendix A) Length, volume, weight are measured in metric units
Length Volume Weight

Anatomical Variability
Structures presented in books are largely representative of those found in individuals Due to genetic diversity every individual is not structurally identical Neither do sensory organs perceive the environment in exactly the same way.

Branches of Anatomy
Gross anatomy Microscopic (histology) anatomy Developmental anatomy

Embryology
Pathological anatomy

Radiographic anatomy
Functional morphology

Gross and Microscopic Anatomy

Gross (large) Anatomy:
Technique - Dissection (cut apart)
- Regional Anatomy - Systemic Anatomy - Surface Anatomy

Microscopic Anatomy structures smaller than 0.1 mm

- Cytology - Histology

LE 1-1

1nm

10nm

100nm

1m 10m 100m 1mm

10mm 100mm

1m

10m

Transmission electron microscope Scanning electron microscope Compound light microscope Unaided human eye

Levels of Structural Organization

Chemical

Cellular
Tissue Organ Organ System Organism
- result of all the simpler levels working together to sustain life - Homeostasis (homeo, unchanging + stasis, standing) - Disease = failure of maintaining homeostasis

Structural Organization

Chemical and Cellular Level

Chemical Level:
Atoms - microscopic building blocks of matter molecules Macromolecules - building blocks of structures found at the cellular level Four Classes

Cellular Level: Cells smallest structural unit of life

Cellular Organization
Cell - composed of organelles and cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane
Human body contains many distinct types of cells
- specialized to perform specific functions

The structure of each cell type is related to its function

Tissue Level
Tissue - a group of similar cells that perform a common function 4 major types of tissues:
- Epithelial (epithelium) - Connective - Muscle - Nervous

Histology

Organ Level
An organ - a group of 2 or more tissue types
- one or more primary tissues and several secondary tissues

Example: the stomach Primary tissue - inside epithelial lining involved with secretion & absorption

Secondary tissues - connective, vascular, nervous, and muscle tissues

Organ (Body) System Level

An organ or body system consists of various organs with similar or related functions
- work together to accomplish a common purpose

There are 11 major systems of the body

Figure 1.2ac

Figure 1.2df

Figure 1.2gi

Figure 1.2jl

Anatomical Position

Figure 1.3

 Person stands erect with feet together and eyes forward Palms face anteriorly with thumbs pointed away from the body Right and left always refers to the sides belonging to the person or specimen being viewed never to the viewer Note - four legged animals have a different anatomical position than humans
- their ventral is on the inferior side and dorsal on the superior side - in humans ventral and anterior is the same and so is dorsal and posterior

Regional Terms
- names of specific body area
Axial region (main axis):
Trunk further divided - Thorax - Abdomen - Pelvis - Perineum

Appendicular region appendages/extremities

- Fundamental subdivisions

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Thoracic Region
Upper portion of the trunk: Mammary Sternal - thoracic/thoracis Axillary - axilla
Vertebral

Upper Extremity Regions

Acromial (acromion)

Brachial (brachium)
Cubital (cubitis) Antebrachial (antebrachium) Manual (manus) - palmar and dorsum

The manus has 3 main regions: Carpal (carpus) Metacarpal Digital or phalangeal (digits or phalanges) - Pollex

Lower Extremity Regions

Femoral/femur

Patellar /patella
Popliteal/popliteus Crural/crus (leg) regions
- sural/sura (calf), peroneal/peroneus (fibular)

Pes (feet)/ Pedal (foot)

- planta/plantar, dorsum, calcaneal/calcaneus (heel)

The pedal has 3 major divisions: Tarsal (tarsus) Metatarsal Digital or phalangeal (digits or phalanges) - Hallux

Pelvic/Pelvis Region
Lower portion of the trunk: Inguinal (inguen) Pubic (pubis)

Perineal (perineum)
Lumbar (lumbus) Sacral Gluteal (gluteus)

Key:

(a) Anterior/Ventral

(b) Posterior/Dorsal

Directional Terms
Terms to locate structures and regions - anatomical position: Superior (cranial, cephalic) Inferior (caudal) Anterior (ventral) Posterior (dorsal) Medial Lateral External (superficial) Internal (deep) Proximal

Distal

Table 1.1

Table 1.1

Table 1.1

Figure 1.5

Planes of the Body

Body sections - 4 main planes of reference:
Sagittal plane Midsagittal/Parasagital Coronal (frontal) plane Transverse plane Oblique section

(a)

(b) Posterior

(c)

Basic Vertebral Body Plan

Figure 1.8

Human Body Plan

Tube-within-a-tube body plan
- inner tube (respiratory and digestive organs) - outer tube (axial skeleton/muscles; nervous structures)

Bilateral symmetry
- paired structures - median plane structures unpaired

Dorsal hollow nerve cord

- runs along the back in the median plane - becomes brain and spinal cord

Vertebrae
Notochord (back string)
- most replaced by vertebrae - some persists as cores of discs between vertebrae

Segmentation repeating units of similar structure

- ribs and muscles between the ribs - spinal nerves - vertebral column

Pharyngeal pouches pharynx (throat region)

- out-pocketings correspond to clefts between fish gills - give rise to some head/neck structures (middle ear cavity)

(a)

(b)

(c)

Body Cavities

Figure 1.9

Dorsal Body Cavity

- Cranial Cavity - Vertebral Cavity

Ventral Body Cavity contains the viscera

Consists of 2 major divisions : - Thoracic Cavity contains the pleural cavities and the mediastinum - Abdominopelvic Cavity (enclosed by the abdominal wall and pelvic girdle) Divided into 2 parts: abdominal and pelvic cavities

Key:

(a) Lateral view

(b) Anterior view

Diaphragm and Peritoneal Cavity

Diaphragm muscle
- separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

Abdominopelvic cavity
many of the organs are surrounded by a peritoneal cavity

 Serous cavities - slitlike space lined by a serous membrane (serosa)

- Pleural cavity - Pericardium cavity - Peritoneum cavity

Parietal serosa forms the outer wall of the cavity and is continuous with the inner serosa Visceral serosa covers the visceral organs

Serous Fluid watery lubricant secreted by both serous membranes

Pericardial, Pleural, Peritoneal

Figure 1.10

(b)

(c)

View

Posterior

(d)

Anterior

Other Cavities
Oral cavity (mouth)
Nasal cavity Orbital cavities Middle ear cavities Synovial (joint) cavities

Other Cavities

Figure 1.11

Abdominopelvic Region
To facilitate its study, the abdominopelvic region can be divided into regions and quadrants
The four quadrants: right and left upper quadrants right and left lower quadrants

Abdominal Quadrants

Right upper quadrant

Left upper quadrant

Right lower quadrant

Left lower quadrant

Nine Abdominal Regions

Divided into 9 regions to describe location of internal organs

Organs in Abdominal Regions

R. Hypochondriac - right, upper 1/3; gallbladder, liver, r. kidney Epigastric - Upper, central 1/3; liver, stomach, pancreas, duodenum

L. Hypochondriac - left, upper 1/3; spleen, colon, liver, l. kidney,

small intestine

R. Lumbar - right, lateral 1/3; cecum, ascending colon, liver, r. kidney,

small intestine

Umbilical - center; umbilicus (navel) is located here; jejunum, ileum,

duodenum, colon, kidneys, major abdominal vessels

L. Lumbar - left, lateral 1/3; descending colon, l. kidney, small intestine R. Iliac (inguinal) - right, lower 1/3; appendix, cecum, small intestine Hypogastric (pubic) - lower, center 1/3; urinary bladder, small
intestine, sigmoid colon, female reproductive organs

L. Iliac (inguinal) - left, lower 1/3; small intestine, descending colon,

sigmoid colon

Microscopic Anatomy
Form of anatomy known as histology - the study of tissue and their cells (cytology) Microscopy is used to investigate the fine structure of organs, tissues, and cells Note - specialized cells form different types of tissues, thus different tissues do not look or function in the same way

Illness or physiological problems experienced in the body occur at the cellular level

2 types of microscopes light and electron Light (LM): uses a beam of light
- produces sharp, detailed images of sectioned tissues and cells but has low resolution

Electron (TEM or EM): uses electron beams

- much smaller wavelength to produce sharp images - show finer detail but are flat and colorless
- Scanning electron microscopes: electron beam scans the specimen causing secondary electrons to be emitted - specimens are preserved and coated with metal - provides 3-D pictures of whole, unsectioned surfaces

Light and Electron Microscopy

Ciliated epithelium

(330X)

(1700X)

(3300X)

Figure 1.13

Preparing Human Tissue

1st - specimens are fixed (preserved)

2nd - sectioned (thinly sliced)

3rd - stained (color stains or metals added) Note -Type of stain used depends on the microscope Light microscopy organic dyes
- acidic and basic stains

Electron microscopy heavy-metal salts

- deflect electrons - color property of light

Artifacts (distortions) As you study specimens under the microscope or by an unaided eye structures may not strictly represent that of those in living tissue Process of preserving and staining alters the tissues and may create artifacts or distortions

Clinical anatomy and medical imaging techniques

- noninvasive diagnostic tools

Figure 1.14

X Rays
Traditional more non-invasive method of diagnosis X-rays (electromagnetic waves) are directed at the body
- some x-rays are absorbed - amount of absorption depends on the density of matter encountered

Radiograph image is a negative: - darker exposed areas represent soft organs (easily penetrated)
- light, unexposed areas correspond to denser structures such as bones

Contrast medium (solution with heavy elements like barium)

- used to view soft tissue organs

Advanced X-Ray techniques use computer-assisted imaging technologies

Computed Tomography (CT) or CAT Scan (axial)

A rotating tube and recorder move around the person as X-rays are taken A computer processes the images to create a single transverse image that reveals all organs at their best angles with almost no blocking structures Xenon CT - a CT taken in combination with inhaled xenon. Absence of xenon in the picture indicates a stroke is occurring

Figure 1.15

Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)

Figure 1.16

Patient is given a contrast medium - before and after images - computer processes the x-ray images and subtracts the differences - eliminates all traces of body structures that obscure the vessel

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

- access functional flow of blood to the heart & brain
Produces images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body These isotopes are used as tags to follow the flow of blood to the brain and heart As the isotope decays it emits a gamma ray detected by sensors, translated into impulses and sent to a computer There will be a greater concentration in areas that are more active or are receiving more blood Due to cost and other limitations it is being replaced with the MRI.
Figure 1.17

Sonography or Ultrasound Imaging

Figure 1.18

Pulses of high frequency (ultrasonic) sound waves reflect (echo) off tissue Computer analyzes the echoes to construct sectional images

Equipment inexpensive/safer technique can detect developing fetuses

Not used for viewing air-filled structures or structures surrounded by bone

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

1 detects levels of H to produce high-contrast images of soft tissues
H+ (bodys water) aligns with the magnet - a radio frequency is emitted to misalign them as they realign with the magnet a radio wave is again emitted Sensors detect the waves, computerized signals produce detailed images of soft tissues

Figure 1.19