GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

REVIEW III
DANIELLE HERNANDEZ

PART I

PERSONALITY

4 PERSPECTIVES
Overview Can be explained in several different ways 4 different main perspectives Difficult to measure in a precise scientific methods 4 PERSPECTIVES OF PERSONALITY THEORY Psychoanalytic (Freudian/Neo-Freudian) Theory Humanistic Theory Trait Theory Social Cognitive Theory

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PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE
Sigmund Freuds Topographical Model Preconscious mind all information and thoughts are kept- not aware of them, but can be easily brought into conscious awareness Conscious mind all information and thoughts you are aware of- similar to what we now call short-term memory Unconscious mind area that his theory is heavily based on
Remains hidden at all times May surface in dreams or in some behavior one engages in (not aware of it) Example of unconscious can influence conscious is when you meant to say one thing, but comes out entirely different [Freudian slip]

Preconscious Conscious

Subconscious (Freudian focus)

DIVISION OF PERSONALITY
ID Amoral part of personality Completely unconscious Biological drives; makes demands Libido; pleasure principle (pleasure drive until puberty) Pleasure principle when there is a need, it needs to be fulfilled immediately with no regard to consequences

EGO Rational, logical, reality principle As infants age, they are less likely to get what they want; delayed gratification More rational and logical than id Reality principle must satisfy id as long as it doesnt lead to negative consequences SUPEREGO Moral center of personality Puts restrictions on how demands are met Ego ideal vs. conscience Ego ideal standards of moral development (societys ideals) Conscience images/rules of undesirable behaviour Good mental health is driven by ego-strength strongest force in guiding ones thoughts and behaviours BALANCE!

PSYCHOLOGICAL DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Id or superego dont get what they want Leads to anxiety in ego If anxiety increases, disordered behaviour develops Psychological defense mechanisms are ways of dealing with stress

STAGES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Each stage focuses on a different erogenous zone/conflict/resolution Driven by sexuality Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Latency Genital Stage

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ORAL STAGE
0-1.5 yrs Erogenous zone is the mouth Dominated by the id Conflict- weaning off the breast

Oral personalities
Preoccupied with food/drink When stressed- smoking/nail biting Verbal aggression when angry

ANAL STAGE
18 months-3yrs Erogenous zone anus Children got pleasure from withholding and releasing themselves Conflict- toilet training

Two orientations of toilet training:

Praise for successful elimination at desired time/place
Adult productivity/creativity; no shame/guilt; making mistakes is okay Anal exposure rebellion (messy, cruel, destructive, hostile Anal rententive withholding (rigid, obsessive, stingy, obstinacy, orderliness)

Punishment and ridicule for failures

PHALLIC STAGE
3-6 yrs Erogenous zone shifts to the genitals Time of sexual curiosity (masturbation) Penis envy Oedipus complex sexual attraction (curiosity) to opposite sex parent; jealousy of same-sex parent Child has anxiety from these two emotional reactions Sexual repression and identification occurs in order to resolve the complex **by 6 yrs of age, our personality is formed

LATENCY
6 yrs-puberty Hidden or latent sexual feelings Growth of intelligence, physical skills, social skills Boys with boys/ Girls with girls

GENITAL STAGE
Puberty death Erogenous zone sexual behaviour Focused on sexual behaviours with partner Develop the ability to share in warm and caring relationships and have concern for others welfare Demonstrate greater control over impulses Represents an ideal, rather than an absolute endpoint of development

Difficulties at this stage

Fixation immature love; workaholic/inability to work

CURRENT VIEWS OF FREUD

Freuds theories were Not based on scientific research (experimental) Case study-driven Recalled memories of childhood and life experiences Determined if memories were accurate or fantasy Consisted of dream analysis
Especially recurring dreams Unconscious expressions

NEO-FREUDIANS
His ideas were met with some resistance but began to be accepted. Others want to alter focus of psychoanalysis to impact of social environment (rather than sexuality)

ALFRED ADLER
Disagreed with Freuds importance of sexuality in personality development

Focus of personality was feelings of inferiority

Adlers Individual Theory Strive for competence due to inferiority Want to overcome our short-comings(based on our own standards) Different ways to respond to inferiority
Healthy lifestyle Mistaken lifestyles dominate others; becoming dependent on others; avoid situations that causes inferiority; overly concerned of needs of others
Inferiority complex exaggerated feelings of personal incompetence; to overcome this: Superiority complex way of maintaining a sense of self-worth; exaggerated arrogance

Role of birth order

First born achievement-oriented; independent; conscientious Middle competitiveness; rivalry; self-esteem issues Last born pampered; lazy/defeatist due to failures; rebellious

KAREN HORNEY
Disagreed with Freud over concept of Penis Envy womb envy men need to compensate for lack of childbearing ability by striving for success in other areas Disagreed with sexuality, focused on childs sense of basic anxiety Basic anxiety have this since birth because born into bigger and powerful world compared to child
with secure upbringing would overcome anxiety; without- maladaptive ways of dealing with relationships/neurotic person

CARL ROGERS
Humanism and Personality

Important tool develop image of oneself Ones self divided into real self and ideal self Can lead to feelings of competence and being capable vs. anxiety or neuroticism Competent and Capable
Similarity between real and ideal self More likely to match if not far apart to begin with Realistic view of real self and ideal self is attainable Anxiety and Neuroticism Mismatch of real and ideal self Some will be motivated and will drive them toward greater self-actualization Others respond defensively, prevents them from being more self-actualized Incongruence Leads to anxiety Can cause low self-esteem ex: if self-concept includes belief that we love all humanity
Meet someone whom we hate; develop anxiety

Various defense strategies

CARL ROGERS
Psychologically Healthy

Have congruence between selves or between self-concept and our experiences Open to new experiences No need to deny or distort their perceptions Feel worthy under all conditions Fully Functioning Person
Maslow also agrees with this Where we should be Actively exploring potentials/abilities Experiencing a match between real and ideal self is very close Does not mean youre self actualized! This is a step toward it! Examined motivations and how they are organized Some needs take priority over other

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MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Focused on most well-adjusted, fully functioning people

Examined motivations and how they are organized

Some needs take priority over others A given motive doesnt have to be 100% satisfied before we turn to a higher need Means of satisfying particular needs varies across cultures No given behaviour is motivated by a single need Another set of needs not on hierarchy Cognitive needs needs to know and to understand To be a fully functioning person does not mean youre self-actualized

Only if fully functioning are you then capable of reaching selfactualization

Self-Actualized Self-awareness, emphatic, secure sense of who they are, interests are problem-centered Belong to groups/communities but dont let them control you

CURRENT VIEWS OF HUMANISTIC THEORY

Impact in development of therapies to promote self-growth Ignores negative aspects of human nature Difficult to test scientifically

TRAIT THEORIES
Not concerned with explaining personality development Focus on describing personality Predicted behaviour based on that description GORDON ALLPORT

Trait theory defining 200 trait descriptions RAYMOND CATTEL

Trait theory defined 2 types of traits
Surface what Allport defined Source more basic traits that underlie surface traits; ex. Shyness, being quiet introversion

TRAIT THEORIES
FIVE-FACTOR MODEL 1980s, researchers attempted to reduce number of trait dimensions McRae and Costa
Most used today Represents core description of personality Reportedly only dimension necessary to know Openness (creative, curious to conventional) Conscientious (organised, reliable to careless) Extraversion (sociable to reserved) Agreeableness (good-natured, helpful to rude) Neuroticism (worrying, insecure to secure, relaxed)

TRAIT THEORIES
Current Views of Trait Perspectives Understanding that traits not always expressed in some way across different situations TRAIT-SITUATION INTERACTION Theory has ability to be studied Cross-cultural research found evidence of these 5 trait dimensions (OCEAN) in 11 different cultures Why is there this cultural commonality?

SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Albert Bandura [refer to Bobo doll study] Acquisition of an ability by watching the behaviour of another (model) Not just focused on how environment controls us, but also how we think about situations Reciprocal determinism personalities are shaped by the interaction of
1. Behaviours 2. Internal personal factors (thoughts and feelings) 3. Environment

PART II

ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY

OVERVIEW
Interviews unstructured

Projective tests helps to uncover unconscious

Disadvantages
Very Subjective Difficulty with reliability and validity No standard for scoring

Rorschach Inkblot test 10 inkblots long Score responses on key factors (i.e. reference to shape, figures, attention to detail) Used to describe personality; diagnose mental disorders Still used by some today Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) 20 black and white pictures tell a story about person or people in picture Psychoanalysts look for revealing statements

OVERVIEW
Behavioural Assessment

Used by behavioural and social-cognitive therapists Direct observation Rating scales (completed by patient or those close to them) Frequency count Disadvantages
Observer bias Observer effect

MMPI-2 A common personality inventory 567 statements (e.g. Im often very tense) Yields 10 clinical scales Shows everything from mild personality problems (excessive worrying) to more serious disorders (depression; schizophrenia)

OVERVIEW
Personality Inventory Used by trait therapists More objective and reliable because not open-ended MMPI-2
Tests for abnormal behavioural patterns in personality Standardized Objective Good reliability and validity Patient may still fake answers May pick answers at random

Advantages

Disadvantages

PART III

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Abnormal behaviour Psychopathology study of abnormal behaviour Different Ways Of Defining Abnormal Behaviour Statistical definition Social norm deviance Based on subjective discomfort
Does this behaviour affect patients day-to-day functioning?

Criterion Used to Determine Abnormal Behaviour Is behaviour unusual? Does behaviour go against social norms? Does behaviour cause person significant subjective distress? Is behaviour maladaptive? (daily functions being impeded) Does behaviour cause person to be dangerous to self/others?

HOW DO WE EXPLAIN THE CAUSE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS?

Psychoanalysis Its about hiding problems Due to repressing thoughts/memories in unconscience If try to resurface, disordered behaviour emerges and we try to repress them again Behaviorism Learning problems or disordered behaviours Looking at modeling and reinforcement Cognitive Model Result of illogical thinking patterns

HOW DO WE EXPLAIN THE CAUSE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS?

Social-cognitive Model Interactions between ones traits and ones situation Cognitive processes and learn behaviours through conditioning/observing/modeling *change both illogical thinking and behaviour Biological Model Have biological/medical cause Ex: chemical imbalance, brain damage/TBI, dysfunction, genetic predisposition

DSM-IV-TR
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Version IV Test Revision

Guide in diagnosing psych disorders

For each disorder: Lists symptoms Path disorder takes as it progresses Checklist of diagnostic criteria Consists of 5 Axes Axis 1: Clinical Disorders Axis 2: Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation Axis 3: Physical Illnesses That Affect Psychological Adjustment Axis 4: Problems in Individuals Life That Might Affect Adjustment Axis 5: Overall Rating of Current Functioning

PREVALENCE OF PSYCH DISORDERS

NIMH 22%of adults (44 million) have some sort of psych disorder APA 1 in 5 children and teens suffer mental health problems Depression is most prevalent, followed by anxiety disorders and then schizophrenia

ANXIETY DISORDERS
Dominant Symptom excessive worrying Specific form to general emotion Phobias OCD

PTSD
Panic Disorder Generalized Anxiety Disorder

ANXIETY DISORDERS
Phobias Irrational, persistent fear of something whether object or situation
Social phobias fear of interacting with others or being in social situations (being scrutinized by others/ avoid certain social situations) Acrophobia fear of heights Arachnophobia fear of spiders Agoraphobia fear of being in a place or situation where escape is difficult or impossible (i.e. Copycat)

ANXIETY DISORDERS
OCD Intruding thoughts that repeatedly occur and are followed by repetitive, ritualistic behaviour By doing acts, decrease anxiety Not a concern unless:
Feel compelled to do it always If you cant do it, it leads to extreme anxiety (i.e. As Good As It Gets)

ANXIETY DISORDERS
Panic Disorders Experience chronic panic attacks
Sudden onset of extreme panic with various physical symptoms Racing heart Rapid breathing Sweating, dry mouth Dulled hearing/vision A lot like heart attack symptoms Can last up to 30 minutes

If so prevalent that affects day-to-day life, then its a disorder

ANXIETY DISORDERS
GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder) Feelings of dread and impending doom along with physical symptoms of stress (tired easily, irritable, muscle aches and tension, sleeping difficulties) Anxiety over a number of different events Symptoms for at least 6 months

ANXIETY DISORDERS
Causes for Anxiety Disorders Psychoanalytic signal that repressed urges are threatening to surface Behavioural phobias are learned Cognitive result of illogical, irrational thought processes
Magnification of situations Overgeneralization single event as a never-ending problem

MOOD DISORDERS
Mood is severely disturbed; disrupts day to day functions Major depression Bipolar disorder Major depression Most common Twice as prevalent in women in adult years; similar ratio in college and single adults Comes on suddenly with no external cause Symptoms
Loss of interest Sleep/appetite changes Feelings of worthlessness Difficulty concentrating Thoughts of death/suicide

MOOD DISORDERS
Bipolar Disorder Sever mood swings depression to mania No external cause Depression phase similar to major depression Lasts a few weeks to a few months Type 2: cycles depression and hypomania Type 1: hypomania becomes mania

MOOD DISORDERS
Hypomania Grandiose ideas Risk-taking behaviour Function on little to no sleep Creative/extremely productive Can talk for a very long time to someone and not let the other person get a word in Mania Hallucinations Delusions Paranoia

MOOD DISORDERS
Causes of Mood Disorders Psychoanalysis view depression as anger turned inward; result of anger felt as child that has been repressed and later displaced Behavioural linked to learned helplessness; self-defeating thoughts about self Biological imbalance of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine;

Genetic trait estimate of heritability of major depression: 35-40%; 65% of people with bipolar disorder had at least one relative with it Identical twins likelihood of second twin developing bipolar or major depression ranges from 40-70% Blow negative events out of proportion Minimize positive events Self-defeating beliefs arise from learned helplessness Negative explanatory style of thinking Bad events stable, global, internal Fluctuating self-esteem High level of pessimism Alloy et al (1999): assessed students thinking styles first few weeks of classes; reassessed optimism/pessimism every 6 weeks for years. 1% of the optimistic group developed depression after 2 yrs vs. 17% of the pessimistic group

Social-Cognitive distortion of thinking

SCHIZOPHRENIA
Suffer from disordered thinking, bizarre behaviours, hallucinations, and inability to distinguish between fantasy and reality Main Symptoms Delusions false beliefs held by person
Persecution Reference Grandeur Control

Speech disturbances rhyming words or interruption of speech patterns Hallucinations see or hear things that are not there Flat affect / Inappropriate display of emotion *need to have 2 or more symptoms frequently for at least a month *Paranoia and sleep disturbances are usually how it starts

SCHIZOPHRENIA
Positive vs. Negative Symptoms Positive hallucinations and delusions
Excess or distortion of normal functions Increased activity in dopamine Drugs to reduce dopamine are very effective in reducing positive symptoms Decrease in normal functions Decreased activity in dopamine receptors Decreased blood flow in the frontal lobe Doesnt respond well to medications

Negative poor attention or lack of affect

SCHIZOPHRENIA
Types of Schizophrenia

Disorganized Schizophrenia
Confused speech, hallucinations, inappropriate/flat affect Socially impaired, poor daily living skills (i.e. hygiene) Disturbed motor behaviours Doesnt move at all to displaying odd postures Dramatically decreased in ??? Suffers from hallucinations and delusions Delusions are unusual, but systematic have a theme

Catatonic

Paranoid

Undifferentiated

Shift from one pattern of symptoms to another or show no consistent pattern

When major episode ends, but still have some residual (negative beliefs, poor language skills, odd functioning of daily life)

Residual

*facial grimacing can be a result of antipsychotic medications

SCHIZOPHRENIA
Causes of Schizophrenia

Psychoanalysis severe breakdown in ego because overwhelmed by demands of id

Ego cant distinguish between fantasies of id and realities of world Regression due to disturbed relationship between mother and child Difficulty linking early childhood experiences with later development of schizophrenia

Behavioural cant describe onset, but focus on how particular behaviour symptoms are shaped
Perhaps through reinforcement and modeling

Cognitive irrational beliefs seen as more severe form of illogical thinking; helps reduce some symptoms Biological
Chemical influences (dopamine; amphetamine users studies Brain has structural defects (frontal lobe defects and deterioration of neurons Genetics strong evidence General population 1% With ID twins 50% increase Both parents 46% Fraternal twins / 1parent 17%

PART IV

PSYCHOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS

PSYCHOTHERAPY
When does one need to consider psychotherapy? **Not just those who are diagnosed Experiencing a psychological disorder Help cope with life problems Learn to make decisions differently Change ones life to be more satisfied Two kinds of therapy: Psychotherapy traditional talking therapy; further divided into insight or action therapy Biomedical therapy treated with biological or medical methods to relieve symptoms including drugs, surgical procedures, and electroshock treatments

PSYCHOTHERAPY
Psychoanalysis Insight therapy based on Freuds theory Emphasis revealing of unconscious conflicts that cause disordered behaviour or emotions Two techniques to obtain repressed information from patient
Dream interpretation repressed material surfaced in dreams; latent content hidden, symbolic meaning of events in dream Free association patient encouraged to talk about anything that came to mind without fear of negative evaluation look for resistance

PSYCHOTHERAPY
Psychodynamic Therapy

Modern form of psychoanalysis Focus less on clients part and more on present relationships and issues Client rather than patient No more couch Therapist is more directive, asking questions, giving opinions, and interpretations earlier in sessions Still requires client to have certain level of intelligence; ability to verbally express ideas, feelings, and thoughts effectively Not effective for:
those with psychotic disorders those with anxiety disassociate disorders

Effective for:

PSYCHOTHERAPY
Humanistic Therapy

Insight based (like psychodynamic) Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy Focused on conscious, subjective experiences of emotion and peoples sense of self Behaviour is driven by how one interprets the world Help client strive toward personal growth Therapist remains neutral
Doesnt interpret or take direct actions with client Calm, nonjudgmental listener Instead, accurately sense and reflect clients feelings Therapist is showing empathy Adopt the clients perspective walking in the clients shoes Therapist will self-disclose Therapist accept and value client for who they are Unconditional positive regard

PSYCHOTHERAPY
Behaviour Therapy

Action based Aim is to change behaviour through use of learning principles Abnormal / undesirable behaviour is not a symptom, rather, its a problem itself Not just modification of behaviour but also modification of environment
i.e. lots of posters in a classroom is bad for ADHD Replacing fear/anxiety response with an incompatible response (i.e. calm/relaxation) Used to treat phobias 3-step process Relax client through deep muscle relaxation training Help client develop a list (Hierarchy of fears) from least to most fearful condition: Ex: from imagining the situation to being in it Help client confront first item while remaining in a relaxed state

Systematic Desensitization

PSYCHOTHERAPY
Aversion Therapy Undesirable behaviour is paired with an aversive stimulus to reduce frequency of behaviours Used for cigarette smoking or alcoholism
Smoking rapid smoking technique Alcohol nausea medication

PSYCHOTHERAPY
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Focused on helping people change thinking patterns and/or unrealistic beliefs into more adaptive ones Help client change their actions through behaviour techniques Both insight and action-based therapy Steps
Have to identify irrational beliefs Arbitrary inference jumping to conclusions Selective thinking focus on one aspect of a situation Therapist challenges their validity Help client to see that beliefs are irrational and unhealthy

PSYCHOTHERAPY
Biomedical Therapies Psychopharmacology use of drugs to relieve or control symptoms of a psych disorder Four categories of meds Antipsychotic
Conventional antipsychotics block dopamine receptors Atypical antipsychotics block serotonin and/or dopamine also affect norepinephrine Benzodiazepines increases activity of GABA Buspirone stabilize serotonin levels Beta blockers reduce rapid heartbeat and muscle tension Mineral salts decrease norepinephrine and increase serotonin (i.e. lithium) Anticonvulsants increases GABA, inhibit norepinephrine reuptake MAG inhibitors inhibit metabolic action of norepinephrine and serotonin Cyclic antidepressants inhibit reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin SSRIs inhibit reuptake of serotonin

Antianxiety meds

Mood stabilizers

Antidepressants

FIN.

ACRONYMS
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