Bulk Feeder Fluid Feeder Substrate Feeder Suspension Feeder

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Termodifikasi untuk menyediakan kompartemen khusus untuk mikroba yang dapat mencerna selulosa
Ruminansia (seperti sapi, domba, dan jerapah) memiliki perut besar

dengan dibagi empat ruang, salah satunya adalah rumen. Rumen is a large fermentation chamber that contains microbes and up to 50 gallons of undigested plant material

Herbivora mamalia (seperti kelinci dan kelinci) yang

bukan ruminansia menggunakan cecum tunggal yang panjang yang terdapat di awal usus besar
Mengandung mikroorganisme yang mencerna selulosa

Karnivora (rubah, anjing, kucing, singa, dan macan) memiliki saluran pencernaan yang lebih pendek daripada herbivora karena makanan mereka jauh lebih .mudah dicerna
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Mouth serves multiple functions

Roof of mouth separates nasal cavities from oral cavity and has

Salivary Glands

two parts: anterior hard palate and a posterior soft palate Tonsils contain lymphatic tissue and help protect the body against infections, but when inflamed it is called tonsillitis
Saliva contains antibacterial agents, including lysozyme and an enzyme called salivary amylase that begins the process of

The Teeth

digesting starch Tongue, composed of skeletal muscle, mixes chewed food with saliva and forms mixture into a mass called a bolus
We use our teeth to chew food into pieces convenient for swallowing Tooth decay, called dental caries, or cavities, occurs when bacteria within the mouth metabolize sugar and give off acids, which erode teeth

Gum Disease

Bacteria accumulate in plaque and cause inflammation of the gums (gingivitis), which can spread to the periodontal membrane, which lines the tooth sockets
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Esophagus - muscular tube that passes from the pharynx through the thoracic cavity and diaphragm into the abdominal cavity, where it joins the stomach Pharynx - region that receives air from the nasal cavities and food from the mouth
Swallowing in the pharynx is a reflex action performed

automatically Soft palate moves back to close off the nasopharynx and the trachea moves up under the epiglottis to cover the glottis

A rhythmic contraction called peristalsis pushes bolus (chewed and swallowed food) along digestive tract Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)

Glottis - opening to the larynx (voice box), the air passage

Sphincters are muscles that encircle tubes and act as valves Refluxed stomach acid touches the lining of the esophagus
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and causes a burning sensation in the chest called heartburn, or acid indigestion

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The stomach is a thick-walled organ that is continuous with the esophagus above and duodenum of small intestine below
movement of chyme into small intestine

Stores food, initiates digestion of protein, and controls

Wall of stomach contains three layers of smooth muscle that allow stomach to stretch and mechanically break food into smaller fragments Food leaves stomach as a thick, soupy liquid called chyme
Chyme enters the small intestine in squirts by way of the
Oblique, Circular, and Longitudinal layers

pyloric sphincter, which acts like a valve, repeatedly opening and closing

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In 1983, Dr. Barry Marshall proposed that ulcers were caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori

Initially, the idea was met with scorn and ridicule Dr. Marshall used himself as a guinea pig and

Today doctors treat ulcers with antibiotics, coupled with an acid-reducing drug to allow the stomach lining to heal
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drank a tube of Helicobacter pylori One week later, he began suffering painful symptoms of stomach inflammation He treated himself by taking a combination of antibiotics to kill the bacteria and an acidblocking drug to ease the symptoms

The small intestine is about 6 meters long, but only about 2.5 cm wide
First 25 cm is called the duodenum Bile from the liver emulsifies fat, causing fat droplets to

Anatomic features increase the surface area of the small intestine

Wall of small intestine contains fingerlike villi (sing., villus)

disperse in water

that have extensions called microvilli

Nutrient molecules are absorbed into the vessels of a villus, which contains blood capillaries and a lymphatic capillary called a lacteal
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Villi also bear enzymes that finish chemical digestion

Microvilli greatly increase the surface area of the villus for the absorption of small nutrient molecules

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The Pancreas

Elongated and flattened organ that has both an endocrine

The Liver

and an exocrine function Produces pancreatic juice, with sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and digestive enzymes
Largest gland in the body and lies under the diaphragm Liver removes poisonous substances from the blood and

Liver Disorders

detoxifies them Maintains blood glucose level at about 100 mg/100 mL If glycogen is depleted, liver converts glycerol and amino acids to glucose Liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder
Jaundice can result from a viral infection of the liver, called

hepatitis Cirrhosis is a chronic liver disease in which the organ first becomes fatty, and then liver tissue is replaced by inactive fibrous scar tissue
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The stomach produces gastrin, a hormone that increases the secretory activity of the gastric glands Cells of duodenal wall produce two other hormones that are of particular interest

Secretin and CCK (cholecystokinin) After these hormones enter bloodstream,

pancreas increases output of pancreatic juice

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Large intestine - larger in diameter but shorter in length than the small intestine
down nondigestible material and produce vitamins

Includes the cecum, the colon, the rectum, and anus Has a population of bacteria (Escherichia coli) that break

Cecum has small projection called the vermiform appendix Colon - subdivided into the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons
Sigmoid colon enters rectum, last 20 cm of large intestine About 95% of water is absorbed by the small intestine,
Plays a role in fighting infections Can become infected, called appendicitis

and the remaining portion is absorbed into the cells of the colon Subject to the development of polyps, small growths arising from epithelial lining
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Nutritionists hypothesize that high intake of refined carbohydrates and fructose sweeteners may be responsible for prevalence of obesity.
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Triglycerides

Unsaturated fatty acids

Saturated fatty acids

Trans fatty acids (trans fats)

Cholesterol
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Kolesterol menggunakan sirkulasi tubuh sebagai sistem transportasinya, dan menggunakan protein sebagai sarana untuk sirkulasi.

Kombinasi dari kolesterol dan protein ini disebut lipoprotein yang terbagi dalam dua jenis, low density lipoproteins (LDL) dan high density lipoproteins (HDL).

LDL mengirimkan kolesterol dari liver ke cell-cell, dimana cell-cell akan memanfaatkannya dalam jumlah tertentu. Namun, kolesterol yang tersisa bisa berubah secara kimiawi (melalui proses oxidasi) dan akan dibawa oleh cell-cell ke dalam dinding pembuluh darah yang akhirnya mulai menumpuk. Proses inilah yang menyebabkan menyempitnya artery atau disebut atherosclerosis. Akibatnya, level kolesterol LDL yang tinggi akan meningkatkan resiko penyakit jantung. Itulah kenapa LDL terkadang disebut kolesterol 'jahat.

Sebaliknya, HDL akan mengangkut kolesterol berlebih dari artery ke liver, dimana tubuh akan menyingkirkannya. Sebagai hasilnya, level kolesterol HDL yang tinggi itu disarankan untuk melindungi kita dari penyakit jantung, sehingga terkadang jenis kolesterol disebut kolesterol 'baik.

Dietary proteins are digested to amino acids, which cells use to synthesize hundreds of cellular proteins
must be present in diet

Of the 20 amino acids, nine are essential amino acids and

Eggs, milk, meat, poultry, and most animal-derived foods contain all nine essential amino acids

Plant-derived foods generally do not have as much protein as those from animals
essential amino acids A balanced vegetarian diet is quite possible by adding supplements and other foods made from processed soybeans
Example: tofu or soymilk

Each type of plant food generally lacks one or more of the

Protein should not supply the bulk of dietary calories

and encourage the formation of kidney stones

Average American eats twice as much protein as necessary High-protein diets can also increase calcium loss in the urine
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Need about 20 different minerals for numerous physiological functions

Regulation of biochemical reactions, maintenance of fluid

Occasionally, individuals do not receive enough iron, calcium, magnesium, or zinc in their diets

balance, and incorporation into certain structures and compounds

Adult females need more iron in the diet than males if they

One mineral that people consume too much of is sodium

are menstruating each month Many people take calcium supplements, as directed by a physician, to counteract osteoporosis, a degenerative bone disease
Recommended amount of sodium intake per day is 2,400

mg, while the average American takes in 4,0004,700 mg each day

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Vitamins are organic compounds that regulate various metabolic activities

No scientific evidence vitamins are wonder

Vitamin deficiencies can lead to disorders, and even death, in humans

Although many foods in the U.S. are

drugs Vitamins C, E, and A are termed antioxidants and defend body against free radicals

enriched, or fortified with vitamins, some individuals are at risk for vitamin deficiencies Include the elderly, young children, alcoholics, and low income people
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Consuming too many calories contributes to body fat, which increases a persons risk of obesity and associated illnesses Diabetes Type 2
Diabetes type 2 and cardiovascular disease are often seen in obese people People are usually obese and display insulin resistance When the blood glucose level rises rapidly, the pancreas

Cardiovascular Disease

produces an overload of insulin to bring the level under control Chronically high insulin levels apparently lead to insulin resistance, increased fat deposition, and a high blood fatty acid level
Often due to arteries blocked by plaque from saturated fats and cholesterol Cholesterol is carried in the blood by two types of lipoproteins: low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) Consuming saturated fats, including trans fats, raises LDL cholesterol levels, while eating unsaturated fats lowers LDL cholesterol levels
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Anorexia nervosa - severe psychological disorder characterized by an irrational fear of getting fat

Bulimia nervosa - binge-eats, and then purges to avoid gaining weight

Results in the refusal to eat enough food to maintain a healthy body weight The binge-purge cyclic behavior can occur several times a day People with bulimia nervosa can be difficult to identify because their body weights are often normal and they tend to conceal their binging and purging Characterized by episodes of overeating not followed by purging Stress, anxiety, anger, and depression can trigger food binges

Many obese people suffer from binge eating disorder

Muscle dysmorphia - Preoccupation with diet, body-building activities, and body form
A person with this condition thinks his or her body is underdeveloped when actually it is extremely well developed
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 Anorexia nervosa - severe psychological disorder characterized by an irrational fear of getting fat Results in the refusal to eat enough food to maintain a healthy body weight

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