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BY LECTURER
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NOZIEYANA A.RAHMAN(MP101336) NOR SAHIDAH MOHAMAD ALI(MP121197) DR HAMIMAH BINTI ABU NAIM
1) INSTRUCTIONAL USES -the focus of the grading and reporting system should be improvement of student learning and development. -This is most likely to occur when the report: -a) clarifies the instructional objectives -b) indicates the students strengths and weaknesses in learning. -c) provides information concerning the students personal-social development - d) contributes to the students motivation
2) REPORTS TO PARENTS/GUARDIANS
-These reports should help parents understand the objectives of the school and how well their children are achieving the intended learning outcomes. -- the importance of report to parents/guardians: -1) parents are better able to cooperate with school in promoting their childrens learning and development. -2) enable parents to give them the emotional support and encouragement needed. -3) knowing their childrens strenght and weaknesses in learning.
-1) determining promotion and graduation -2) awarding honor -3) determining athletic eligibility -4) reporting to other schools and prospective employers
1) Traditional Letter-Grade System 2) Pass Fail System 3) Checklists of Objectives 4) Letter to Parents/Guardians 5) Portfolio of Student Work 6) Parent-Teacher Conference
2) PASS-FAILED SYSTEM
-Two category system example: satisfactoryunsatisfactory and pass-fail) has been used in some elementary school. - strength of this system are: -- it permit students to take some courses(elective course) --to encourage students to explore new areas. --permit students to focus on those aspect of course that related most directly to their major field. -- to neglect those areas of little interest or relevance --removing the fear of a lower grade-point average gives student greater freedom to select their learning experience
3) CHECKLIST OF OBJECTIVES
-Some schools have replaced the traditional grading system with a list of objectives to be checked or rated. --these reports typically include ratings of progress towards the major objectives in each subject-matter area. -- The following statements for reading and arithmetic illustrate the nature of these report: -Reading: -1) reads with understand -2) works out meaning and use of new words -3) reads well to others
6) PARENT-TEACHER CONFERENCES
-This reporting method is most widely used at the elementary level. -Parent-teacher conference is a flexible procedure that provides for two way communication(home-school) -- parents have an opportunity to present information concerning the students out-of-school life. --useful tool but there are limitations: -1) time and skill -2) not provide a systematic record of student progress -3) some parents are unwilling to come for conference
- The typical multiple system retains the use of traditional grading(letter grade or number) and supplement the grades with checklist of objectives. - An example report form using the multiple grading and reporting system shown in figure 15.1
Guidelines for developing a multiple grading and reporting system: 1) The development of the grading and reporting system should be guided by the function to be serve. 2) The grading and reporting system should be developed cooperatively by parents , students and school personnel. 3) Should be based on a clear statement of educations objectives 4) Should be consistent with school standards 5) Should be based on adequate assessment 6) Should be detailed enough to be diagnostic and yet compact enough to be practical 7) Should provide for parent-teacher conferences as needed.
THE PURPOSE
Determining What To Include In A Grade If letter grades are to serve as valid indicators of achievement, they must be based on valid measures of achievement.
The process of grading involve :
Defining the course objectives as intended learning outcomes Developing or selecting tests and other evaluation devices that measure these outcomes most directly
Converting all sets of scores to stanines Standard score, 1 through 9 All scores that have been converted to the stanine system, the scores in each set have the same variability. Then weighted by simply multiplying each stanine score by the desired weight.
Relative Grading
RELATIVE GRADING
The grade influenced by both the pupils performance and the performance of the group
Widely used in the schools, because much of classroom testing is norm referenced.
Disadvantage : Shifting frame of reference (e.g., grade depend on the group ability)
ABSOLUTE GRADING
Standard concerned with the degree of mastery to be achieved by the pupils and may be specified as (1) Task to be performed (2) The percentage of correct answer to be obtained on a test designed to measure a clearly defined set of learning tasks
Letter grade are assigned on the basis of an absolute standard of performance rather than a relative one
Percentage-correct score, which are widely used in setting absolute standards, are most meaningful in mastery learning because they indicate how far a pupil is from complete mastery (e.g; A= 95-100, B=85-94, C=75-84, D=65-74, F=below 65) Domain of learning task has not been clearly defined and the standards have been set in a completely arbitary manner.
To uses absolute level of achievement as a basis for grading requires: 1) The domain of learning tasks be clearly defined 2) The standards of performance be clearly specified and justified 3) The measures of pupil achievement be criterion referenced.
Judgement and measurement of ability are likely to be contaminated by achievement to some unknown degree.
If used all (e.g; to motivate low-ability pupils), such grades should be used as supplementary. In dual marking, for example, one letter grade miight indicate level of achievement (relative or absolute), and the second letter grade might be used to represent achievement in relation to ability, or the degree of improvement shown since the last marking period.
Relative Grading Relative grading is based on two assumptions: (1) one of the purposes of grading is to identify students who perform best against their peers and to weed out the unworthy/ (2) student performance more or less follows a normal distribution the famous bell-shaped curve.
Relative Grading
School staff set general guidelines for the approximate distributions of marks. Might involve separate distributions for introductory and advanced courses, for gifted and slow learning classes, and the like. Distribution should be flexible enough to allow for variation in the caliber of pupils from one course to another and from one time to another in the same course. Indicating ranges rather than fixed percentages of pupils who should receive each letter grade offers this flexibility. E.g : A= 10-20 percent of pupils, B= 20-30 percent of pupils, C= 30-50 percent of pupils, D=10-20 percent of pupils, F=0-10 percent of pupils
Gap method
Grading On Curve
The use of the normal curve as a grading model is based on the discovery, earlier in this century, that IQ test scores over large populations approximate a normal distribution.
The larger the class, the more likely that student performance will begin to look something like a normal curve, the assumption that performance is normally distributed is usually unjustified, even in large sections.
Gap method
Students total course scores are arranged in ascending order and the teacher looks for naturally-occurring gaps in the distribution of the scores.
Unfortunately, the gaps may not reflect real achievement differences but simply chance occurrence, and they may not appear at reasonable points in the distribution. The primary advantage of the gap system is that there are fewer complaints about borderline grades, since students are unsophisticated about grading systems and will likely accept the gaps as proof of significant differences in performance.
Absolute Grading
Based on the idea that grades should reflect mastery of specific knowledge and skills. The teacher sets the criteria for each grade, and all students who perform at a given level receive the same grade. This grading includes delimiting the domain of learning tasks to be achieved, defining the instructional objectives in performance terms, specifying the standard of performance to be attained and measuring the intended outcomes with criterion-referenced instruments.
The letter grades in an absolute system may be defined as the degree to which the objectives have been attained, as follows: A= Outstanding. Pupil has mastered all the courses major and minor instructional objective B= Very Good. Pupil has mastered all of the courses major instructional objectives and most of the minor objectives. C= Satisfactory. Pupils has mastered all of the courses major instructional objectives but just few of the minor objectives. D= Very Weak. Pupils has mastered just a few of the courses major and minor instructional objectives and barely has the essentials needed for the next highest level of instruction. Remedial work would be desirable. F= Unsatisfactory. Pupils has not mastered any of the courses major instructional objectives and lacks the essentials needed for the next highest level of instruction. Remedial work is needed.
If the tests and other evaluation instruments have been designed by yeild scores in terms of percentage of correct answers, absolute grading then might be defined as follows:
A B C D F
= 95 to 100 percent correct = 85 to 94 percent correct = 75 to 84 percent correct = 65 to 74 percent correct = below 65 person correct
Objectivebased Grading
The teacher decides on the total number of points that a student could earn in the course and sets arbitrary achievement levels based on the total. The cut-off for A grades might be 90%, for Bs, 80%, and so forth, and it is assumed that a student who makes 83% knows 83% of the material. If every student scores above 90%, they will all receive As.
1. The rationale for the cut-off scores is usually murky and often based on intuition rather than analysis.
2. The system is based on the assumption that the teacher can construct valid, reliable exams and assignments at consistent levels of difficulty throughout the course. 3. Some teachers apply the same performance scale to every evaluation component, a practice which does not take into account the variability of the assignments or adjust for particularly difficult or particularly easy assignments. 4. Some students may achieve a high number of points simply by doing well on many small, less important assignments.
Objective-based Grading
This method attempts to equate grades with different kinds of performance. In all the grading systems reviewed above, the teacher assumes that students who receive good final grades have learned the more important material and mastered the more complex levels of thinking, but this assumption may not be valid. For E.g, students who do very well on objective exams and poorly on written assignments may earn a respectable final grade, but may not have mastered important intellectual skills that the teacher had in mind. The objective-based grading method takes into account both the amount of material students learn and the level of cognitive complexity they achieve.
Objective-based Grading
To use objective-based grading, the teacher must first review the kinds of knowledge and skills that are implicit in the course and make them explicit as course objectives.
You must identify two kinds of outcomes: minimal objectives and developmental objectives.
Objective-based Grading
Minimum Essential Objectives The student will be able to: describe different kinds of plasmids describe transposons explain how transposon mutagenesis works Developmental Objectives The student will be able to: work problems in bacterial genetics involving transformation, transduction, and conjugation design a protocol to clone a gene or obtain a particular mutant using transposons
Objective-based Grading
If you develop tests and exercises that accurately assess both kinds of objectives, you can set performance standards and grade equivalents on a scale like this one:
Properly weight the various types of achievements included in the grade. Do not lower an achievement grade for tardiness, weak effort, or misbehaviour. Be fair. Avoid bias. Hen in doubt, review the evidence. If still in doubt, give the higher grade.
1. 2. 3. 4.
Decribing what the test measures Explaning the meaning of the test scores. Clarifying the accuracy of the test scores Discussing the use of the test results.
On the reading vocabulary test, Mary scored higher than 85 percent of a national group of fourth grade pupils. (It might also be necessary to point out that the 85 percent does not refer to the percentage of items answered correctly, but only to the percentage of pupils scoring lower)
Interpreting Stanines
On a scale of 1 to 9, on which the average score is 5, Mary received a score of 7 on the reading vocabulary test, when compared with a national group of fourth grade pupils.
(In some cases it may be desirable to use verbal descriptions such as above average[7,8,9], average [4,5,6], or below average [1,2,3] in place of numbers.
Clarifying the accuracy of the test scores It is important to communicate to parents that all test scores contain some error. This can be done most easilt if confidence bands (i.e, error bands) are used in interpreting test scores. Profiles using percentile rank frequently include confidence bands. If these are not available, percentile ranks should be interpreted as estimates that may vary up or down by several points on retesting.
Clarifying the accuracy of the test scores Stanines contain broad units that allow for measurement error. Each stanine is at least one-half standard deviation wide, a difference of 2 stanines usually represents a significant difference in test performance. Thus, if we had scores like these, we could make the following interpretation: Mathematics 8 Reading 6 Science 5