Monroe L.

Weber-Shirk
School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering
Open Channel Flow
Open Channel Flow
Liquid (water) flow with a ____ ________
(interface between water and air)
relevant for
natural channels: rivers, streams
engineered channels: canals, sewer
lines or culverts (partially full), storm drains
of interest to hydraulic engineers
location of free surface
velocity distribution
discharge - stage (______) relationships
optimal channel design
free surface
depth
Topics in Open Channel Flow
Uniform Flow
Discharge-Depth relationships
Channel transitions
Control structures (sluice gates, weirs)
Rapid changes in bottom elevation or cross section
Critical, Subcritical and Supercritical Flow
Hydraulic Jump
Gradually Varied Flow
Classification of flows
Surface profiles
normal depth
Classification of Flows
Steady and Unsteady
Steady: velocity at a given point does not change with
time
Uniform, Gradually Varied, and Nonuniform
Uniform: velocity at a given time does not change
within a given length of a channel
Gradually varied: gradual changes in velocity with
distance
Laminar and Turbulent
Laminar: flow appears to be as a movement of thin
layers on top of each other
Turbulent: packets of liquid move in irregular paths
(Temporal)
(Spatial)
Momentum and Energy
Equations
Conservation of Energy
losses due to conversion of turbulence to heat
useful when energy losses are known or small
____________
Must account for losses if applied over long distances
_______________________________________________
Conservation of Momentum
losses due to shear at the boundaries
useful when energy losses are unknown
____________
Contractions
Expansion
We need an equation for losses
Given a long channel of
constant slope and cross
section find the relationship
between discharge and depth
Assume
Steady Uniform Flow - ___ _____________
prismatic channel (no change in _________ with distance)
Use Energy and Momentum, Empirical or
Dimensional Analysis?
What controls depth given a discharge?
Why doesnt the flow accelerate?
Open Channel Flow:
Discharge/Depth Relationship
P
no acceleration
geometry
Force balance
A
Steady-Uniform Flow: Force
Balance
u
W
u
W sin u
Ax
a
b
c
d
Shear force
Energy grade line
Hydraulic grade line
Shear force =________
0 sin = A A x P x A
o
t u
u t sin
P
A
o
=
h
R =
P
A
u
u
u
sin
cos
sin
~ = S
W cos u
g
V
2
2
Wetted perimeter = __
Gravitational force = ________
Hydraulic radius
Relationship between shear and velocity? ______________
t
o
P A x
P
A Ax sinu
Turbulence
Geometric parameters
___________________
___________________
___________________
Write the functional relationship


Does Fr affect shear? _________
P
A
R
h
=
Hydraulic radius (R
h
)
Channel length (l)
Roughness (c)
Open Conduits:
Dimensional Analysis
f , , Re,
p
h h
l
C r
R R
e
=


F , M, W
V
Fr
yg
=
No!
Pressure Coefficient for Open
Channel Flow?
2
2
C
V
p
p

A
=
2
2
C
V
gh
l
h
l
=
2
2
C
f
f
S
gS l
V
=
l f
h S l =
l
h p = A
Pressure Coefficient
Head loss coefficient
Friction slope coefficient
(Energy Loss Coefficient)
Friction slope
Slope of EGL
Dimensional Analysis
f , , Re
f
S
h h
l
C
R R
e
=


f
h
S
R
C
l
l =
2
2
f
h
gS l
R
V l
l =
2
f h
gS R
V
l
=
2
f h
g
V S R
l
=
f , Re
f
S
h h
l
C
R R
e
=


Head loss length of channel
f , Re
f
h
S
h
R
C
l R
e
l

= =


2
2
f
f
S
gS l
C
V
=
(like f in Darcy-Weisbach)
Chezy equation (1768)
Introduced by the French engineer Antoine
Chezy in 1768 while designing a canal for
the water-supply system of Paris
h f
V C R S =
150 < C < 60
s
m
s
m
where C = Chezy coefficient

where 60 is for rough and 150 is for smooth
also a function of R (like f in Darcy-Weisbach)
2
f h
g
V S R
l
=
compare
Darcy-Weisbach equation (1840)
where d
84
= rock size larger than 84% of
the rocks in a random sample
For rock-bedded streams
f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
2
84
1
1.2 2.03log
h
f
R
d
=

+




4
4
P

2
d
d
d
A
R
h
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
t
t
2
2
l
l V
h f
d g
=
2
4 2
l
h
l V
h f
R g
=
2
4 2
f
h
l V
S l f
R g
=
2
8
f h
V
S R f
g
=
8
f h
g
V S R
f
=
Manning Equation (1891)
Most popular in U.S. for open channels
(English system)
1/2
o
2/3
h
S R
1
n
V =
1/2
o
2/3
h
S R
49 . 1
n
V =
VA Q =
2 / 1 3 / 2
1
o h
S AR
n
Q = very sensitive to n
Dimensions of n?
Is n only a function of roughness?
(MKS units!)
NO!
T /L
1/3
Bottom slope
Values of Manning n
Lined Canals n
Cement plaster 0.011
Untreated gunite 0.016
Wood, planed 0.012
Wood, unplaned 0.013
Concrete, trowled 0.012
Concrete, wood forms, unfinished 0.015
Rubble in cement 0.020
Asphalt, smooth 0.013
Asphalt, rough 0.016
Natural Channels
Gravel beds, straight 0.025
Gravel beds plus large boulders 0.040
Earth, straight, with some grass 0.026
Earth, winding, no vegetation 0.030
Earth , winding with vegetation 0.050

d = median size of bed material
n = f(surface
roughness,
channel
irregularity,
stage...)
6 / 1
038 . 0 d n =
6 / 1
031 . 0 d n = d in
ft
d in m
Trapezoidal Channel
Derive P = f(y) and A = f(y) for a
trapezoidal channel
How would you obtain y = f(Q)?
z
1
b
y
z y yb A
2
+ =
( ) | | b yz y P + + =
2 / 1
2
2
2
| | b z y P + + =
2 / 1
2
1 2
2 / 1 3 / 2
1
o h
S AR
n
Q =
Use Solver!
Flow in Round Conduits
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
r
y r
arccos u
( ) u u u cos sin
2
= r A
u sin 2r T =
u
y
T
A
r
u r P 2 =
radians
Maximum discharge
when y = ______
0.938d
( )( ) sin cos r r q q =
Open Channel Flow: Energy
Relations
2g
V
2
1
1
o
2g
V
2
2
2
o
x S
o
A
2
y
1
y
x A
L f
h S x = D
energy
grade line
hydraulic
grade line
velocity head
Bottom slope (S
o
) not necessarily equal to surface slope (S
f
)
water surface
Energy relationships
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
2 2
L
p V p V
z z h
g g
a a
g g
+ + = + + +
2 2
1 2
1 2
2 2
o f
V V
y S x y S x
g g
+ D + = + + D
Turbulent flow (o ~ 1)
z - measured from
horizontal datum
y - depth of flow
Pipe flow
Energy Equation for Open Channel Flow
2 2
1 2
1 2
2 2
o f
V V
y S x y S x
g g
+ + D = + + D
From diagram on previous slide...
Specific Energy
The sum of the depth of flow and the
velocity head is the specific energy:
g
V
y E
2
2
+ =
If channel bottom is horizontal and no head loss
2 1
E E =
y - potential energy
g
V
2
2
- kinetic energy
For a change in bottom elevation
1 2
E y E - D =
x S E x S E
o
A + = A +
f 2 1
y
Specific Energy
In a channel with constant discharge, Q
2 2 1 1
V A V A Q = =
2
2
2gA
Q
y E + =
g
V
y E
2
2
+ =
where A=f(y)
Consider rectangular channel (A=By) and Q=qB
2
2
2gy
q
y E + =
A
B
y
3 roots (one is negative)
q is the discharge per unit width of channel
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E
y
Specific Energy: Sluice Gate
2
2
2gy
q
y E + =
1
2
2 1
E E =
sluice gate
y
1
y
2
EGL
y
1
and y
2
are ___________ depths (same specific energy)
Why not use momentum conservation to find y
1
?
q = 5.5 m
2
/s
y
2
= 0.45 m
V
2
= 12.2 m/s
E
2
= 8 m
alternate
Given downstream depth and discharge, find upstream depth.
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
Specific Energy: Raise the Sluice
Gate
2
2
2gy
q
y E + =
1
2
E
1
= E
2
sluice gate
y
1
y
2
EGL
as sluice gate is raised y
1
approaches y
2
and E is
minimized: Maximum discharge for given energy.
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
Specific Energy: Step Up
Short, smooth step with rise Ay in channel
Ay
1 2
E E y = +D
Given upstream depth and
discharge find y
2
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
Increase step height?
P
A
Critical Flow
T
dy
y
T=surface width
Find critical depth, y
c
2
2
2gA
Q
y E + =
0 =
dy
dE
Tdy dA =
0
dE
dy
= =
3
2
1
c
c
gA
T Q
=
Arbitrary cross-section
A=f(y)
2
3
2
Fr
gA
T Q
=
2
2
Fr
gA
T V
=
dA
A
D
T
=
Hydraulic Depth
2
3
1
Q dA
gA dy
-
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
y
c
Critical Flow:
Rectangular channel
y
c
T

A
c
3
2
1
c
c
gA
T Q
=
qT Q = T y A
c c
=
3
2
3 3
3 2
1
c c
gy
q
T gy
T q
= =
3 / 1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
g
q
y
c
3
c
gy q =
Only for rectangular channels!
c
T T =
Given the depth we can find the flow!
Critical Flow Relationships:
Rectangular Channels
3 / 1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
g
q
y
c
c c
y V q =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
g
y V
y
c c
c
2 2
3
g
V
y
c
c
2
=
1 =
g y
V
c
c
Froude number
velocity head =
because
g
V y
c c
2 2
2
=
2
c
c
y
y E + =
E y
c
3
2
=
force gravity
force inertial
0.5 (depth)
g
V
y E
2
2
+ =
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
Critical Flow
Characteristics
Unstable surface
Series of standing waves
Occurrence
Broad crested weir (and other weirs)
Channel Controls (rapid changes in cross-section)
Over falls
Changes in channel slope from mild to steep
Used for flow measurements
___________________________________________ Unique relationship between depth and discharge
Difficult to measure depth
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
Broad-crested Weir
H
P
y
c
E
3
c
gy q =
3
c
Q b gy =
E y
c
3
2
=
3/ 2
3/ 2
2
3
Q b g E

=

C
d
corrects for using H rather
than E.
3 / 1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
g
q
y
c
Broad-crested
weir
E measured from top of weir
3/ 2
2
3
d
Q C b g H

=

Hard to measure y
c
Broad-crested Weir: Example
Calculate the flow and the depth upstream.
The channel is 3 m wide. Is H approximately
equal to E?
0.5
y
c
E
Broad-crested
weir
y
c
=0.3 m
Solution
How do you find flow?____________________
How do you find H?______________________
Critical flow relation
Energy equation
Hydraulic Jump
Used for energy dissipation
Occurs when flow transitions from
supercritical to subcritical
base of spillway
We would like to know depth of water
downstream from jump as well as the
location of the jump
Which equation, Energy or Momentum?
Hydraulic Jump!
Hydraulic Jump
y
1
y
2
L
EGL
h
L
Conservation of Momentum
2 2 1 1 2 1
A p A p QV QV = +
2
gy
p

=
A
Q
V =
2 2
2 2 1 1
2
2
1
2
A gy A gy
A
Q
A
Q
= +
x x
p p x x
F F M M
2 1
2 1
+ = +
1
2
1 1
A V M
x
=
2
2
2 2
A V M
x
=
ss p p
F F F W M M + + + = +
2 1
2 1
Hydraulic Jump:
Conjugate Depths
Much algebra
For a rectangular channel make the following substitutions
By A =
1 1
V By Q =
1
1
1
V
Fr
gy
=
Froude number
( )
2
1
1
2
8 1 1
2
Fr
y
y + + =
valid for slopes < 0.02
Hydraulic Jump:
Energy Loss and Length
No general theoretical solution
Experiments show
2
6y L = 20 4
1
< < Fr
Length of jump
Energy Loss
2
2
2gy
q
y E + =
L
h E E + =
2 1
significant energy loss (to turbulence) in jump
( )
2 1
3
1 2
4 y y
y y
h
L

=
algebra
for
Gradually Varied Flow
2 2
1 2
1 2
2 2
o f
V V
y S x y S x
g g
+ + D = + + D
Energy equation for non-
uniform, steady flow
1 2
y y dy =
2
2
f o
V
dy d S dx S dx
g

+ + =


P
A
T
dy
y
dy
dx
S
dy
dx
S
g
V
dy
d
dy
dy
o f
= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
2
2
( )
2 2
2 1
2 1
2 2
o f
V V
S dx y y S dx
g g

= - + - +


Gradually Varied Flow
2
3
2
3
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
Fr
gA
T Q
dy
dA
gA
Q
gA
Q
dy
d
g
V
dy
d
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
| |
f o
S S Fr
dx
dy
=
2
1
dy
dx
S
dy
dx
S
g
V
dy
d
dy
dy
o f
= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
2
2
dy
dx
S
dy
dx
S Fr
o f
= +
2
1
Change in KE
Change in PE
We are holding Q constant!
2
1 Fr
S S
dx
dy
f o

=
Gradually Varied Flow
2
1 Fr
S S
dx
dy
f o

=
Governing equation for
gradually varied flow
Gives change of water depth with distance along channel
Note
S
o
and S
f
are positive when sloping down in
direction of flow
y is measured from channel bottom
dy/dx =0 means water depth is constant
y
n
is when
o f
S S =
Surface Profiles
Mild slope (y
n
>y
c
)
in a long channel subcritical flow will occur
Steep slope (y
n
<y
c
)
in a long channel supercritical flow will occur
Critical slope (y
n
=y
c
)
in a long channel unstable flow will occur
Horizontal slope (S
o
=0)
y
n
undefined
Adverse slope (S
o
<0)
y
n
undefined
Note: These slopes are f(Q)!
Normal depth
Steep slope (S
2
)
Hydraulic Jump
Sluice gate
Steep slope
Obstruction
Surface Profiles
2
1 Fr
S S
dx
dy
f o

=
S
0
- S
f
1 - Fr
2
dy/dx
+ + +
- + -
- - +
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
y
n
y
c
More Surface Profiles
S
0
- S
f
1 - Fr
2
dy/dx
1 + + +
2 + - -
3 - - +
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
y
n
y
c
2
1 Fr
S S
dx
dy
f o

=
Direct Step Method
x S
g
V
y x S
g
V
y
f o
A + + = A + +
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
o f
S S
g
V
g
V
y y
x

+
= A
2 2
2
2
2
1
2 1
energy equation
solve for Ax
1
1
y
q
V =
2
2
y
q
V =
2
2
A
Q
V =
1
1
A
Q
V =
rectangular channel prismatic channel
Direct Step Method
Friction Slope
2 2
4/ 3
f
h
n V
S
R
=
2 2
4/ 3
2.22
f
h
n V
S
R
=
2
8
f
h
fV
S
gR
=
Manning
Darcy-Weisbach
SI units
English units
Direct Step
Limitation: channel must be _________ (so that
velocity is a function of depth only and not a
function of x)
Method
identify type of profile (determines whether Ay is + or -)
choose Ay and thus y
n+1

calculate hydraulic radius and velocity at y
n
and y
n+1

calculate friction slope y
n
and y
n+1

calculate average friction slope
calculate Ax
prismatic
Direct Step Method
=(G16-G15)/((F15+F16)/2-So)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
y A P Rh V Sf E Dx x T Fr bottom surface
0.900 1.799 4.223 0.426 0.139 0.00004 0.901 0 3.799 0.065 0.000 0.900
0.870 1.687 4.089 0.412 0.148 0.00005 0.871 0.498 0.5 3.679 0.070 0.030 0.900
=y*b+y^2*z
=2*y*(1+z^2)^0.5 +b
=A/P
=Q/A
=(n*V)^2/Rh^(4/3)
=y+(V^2)/(2*g)
o f
S S
g
V
g
V
y y
x

+
= A
2 2
2
2
2
1
2 1
Standard Step
Given a depth at one location, determine the depth at a
second location
Step size (Ax) must be small enough so that changes in
water depth arent very large. Otherwise estimates of the
friction slope and the velocity head are inaccurate
Can solve in upstream or downstream direction
upstream for subcritical
downstream for supercritical
Find a depth that satisfies the energy equation
x S
g
V
y x S
g
V
y
f o
A + + = A + +
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
What curves are available?
S
1
S
3
Is there a curve between yc and yn that
decreases in depth in the upstream direction?
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0 5 10 15 20
distance upstream (m)
e
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
)
bottom
surface
yc
yn
Wave Celerity
2
1
2
1
gy F = ( )
2
2
2
1
y y g F o + =
( ) | |
2
2
2 1
2
1
y y y g F F F
r
o + = =
F
1
y+oy
V+oV V
V
w
unsteady flow
y y
y+oy
V+oV-V
w
V-V
w
steady flow
V+oV-V
w
V-V
w
F
2
Wave Celerity:
Momentum Conservation
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
w w w r
V V V V V V V y F + = o
( ) V V V y F
w r
o =
( ) | | ( ) V V V y y y y g
w
o o = +
2
2
2
1
| | ( ) V V V y y y g
w
o o = 2
2
1
( ) V V V y g
w
o o =
y
y+oy
V+oV-V
w
V-V
w
steady flow
1 2
M M F
r
= ( ) y V V M
w
2
1
= Per unit width
Wave Celerity
( ) ( )( )
w w
V V V y y V V y + + = o o
w w w
yV yV V y V y yV yV yV yV o o o o o + + + =
( )
y
y
V V V
w
o
o =
( ) V V V y g
w
o o =
( )
y
y
V V y g
w
o
o
2
=
( )
2
w
V V gy =
w
V V c = gy c =
Mass conservation
y
y+oy
V+oV-V
w
V-V
w
steady flow
Momentum
c
V
Fr
yg
V
= =
Wave Propagation
Supercritical flow
c<V
waves only propagate downstream
water doesnt know what is happening downstream
_________ control
Critical flow
c=V
Subcritical flow
c>V
waves propagate both upstream and downstream
upstream
Most Efficient Hydraulic
Sections
A section that gives maximum discharge for a
specified flow area
Minimum perimeter per area
No frictional losses on the free surface
Analogy to pipe flow
Best shapes
best
best with 2 sides
best with 3 sides
Why isnt the most efficient
hydraulic section the best design?
Minimum area = least excavation only if top of
channel is at grade
Cost of liner
Complexity of form work
Erosion constraint - stability of side walls
Open Channel Flow Discharge
Measurements
Discharge
Weir
broad crested
sharp crested
triangular
Venturi Flume
Spillways
Sluice gates
Velocity-Area-Integration
Discharge Measurements
Sharp-Crested Weir
Triangular Weir
Broad-Crested Weir
Sluice Gate
5/ 2
8
2 tan
15 2
d
Q C g H
q

=

3/ 2
2
3
d
Q C b g H

=

3/ 2
2
2
3
d
Q C b gH =
1
2
d g
Q C by gy =
Explain the exponents of H!
Summary
All the complications of pipe flow plus
additional parameter... _________________
Various descriptions of head loss term
Chezy, Manning, Darcy-Weisbach
Importance of Froude Number
Fr>1 decrease in E gives increase in y
Fr<1 decrease in E gives decrease in y
Fr=1 standing waves (also min E given Q)
Methods of calculating location of free surface

free surface location
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
Broad-crested Weir: Solution
0.5
y
c
E
Broad-crested
weir
y
c
=0.3 m
3
c
gy q =
( )
3
2
3 . 0 ) / 8 . 9 ( m s m q =
s m q / 5144 . 0
2
=
s m qL Q / 54 . 1
3
= =
E y
c
3
2
=
m y E
c
45 . 0
2
3
2
= =
1 2
0.95 E E y m = +D =
2
1
2
1 1
2gy
q
y E + =
435 . 0 5 . 0
1 1
= = m y H
935 . 0
1
= y
2
1 1
2
1
2
q
E y
gE
- @
Sluice Gate
2 m
10 cm
Sluice gate reservoir
Summary/Overview
Energy losses
Dimensional Analysis
Empirical

8
f h
g
V S R
f
=
1/2
o
2/3
h
S R
1
n
V =
Energy Equation
Specific Energy
Two depths with same energy!
How do we know which depth
is the right one?
Is the path to the new depth
possible?
2 2
1 2
1 2
2 2
o f
V V
y S x y S x
g g
+ + D = + + D
2
2
2
q
y
gy
= +
g
V
y E
2
2
+ =
2
2
2
Q
y
gA
= +
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
Specific Energy: Step Up
Short, smooth step with rise Ay in channel
Ay
1 2
E E y = +D
Given upstream depth and
discharge find y
2
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
Increase step height?
Critical Depth
Minimum energy for q
When
When kinetic = potential!
Fr=1


Fr>1 = Supercritical
Fr<1 = Subcritical

0 =
dy
dE
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
E
y
g
V y
c c
2 2
2
=
3
T
Q
gA
=
3
c
q
gy
=
c
c
V
Fr
y g
=
What next?
Water surface profiles
Rapidly varied flow
A way to move from supercritical to subcritical flow
(Hydraulic Jump)
Gradually varied flow equations
Surface profiles
Direct step
Standard step