BASIC SHIP DESIGN

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Hullform Ship hull form refers to the shape of the hull, especially that part of the hull that is under water in normal operating conditions. Many of the calculations that a naval architect must make in order to design a ship are influenced by hull form A great variety 'of hull forms have been successfully adapted to ships, reason that their forms are so different from one another is because the requirements of their separate missions especially as regards their required speeds and capacities, dictate that they should be different for each to operate efficiently.
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Hull Form: Ship's Lines The graphical display of the hull form of a ship is called a lines drawing, or the lines. A small scale sample of a lines drawing is shown in Figure 1-2. The three views in a lines drawing have the same relationship to one another as the front, side, and top views in a typical orthographic engineering drawing, but their names are special to ship's lines.
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 Since its purpose is only to define hull form, the lines drawing to show the hull only up to the deck or decks to which the ship's side shell plating extends. Deckhouses/superstructure are not included.

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 The view showing stations in true shape is called the body plan. Only half of each station is drawn, since the other half is symmetrical. By convention, stations from the bow to the midship section are drawn to the right of centerline, and those from amidships to aft are drawn on the left side. Waterlines are also drawn on one side of the centerline only, and they are all superimposed in the half-breadth plan.
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 The other side of centerline in the half breadth plan is often reserved for drawing the true shapes of intersections produced by diagonal planes, which are auxiliary planes. The lines that are drawn are shown the waterplanes and buttock planes.

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 On the third view of the lines drawing, called the profile plan or the sheer plan, the true shapes of the buttocks are drawn. The outline of the ship's centerline profile (as seen from the side), showing bow and stern profile shapes. The centerline plane is the zero foot buttock plane, and one of the buttock curves.
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Views and Reference Planes As shown in Figure 2-2, a ship hull is imagined to be resting on a horizontal plane called the baseline plane, which is the reference plane from which vertical measurements, or heights above baseline, are made to any point on the hull. The two symmetrical halves of the hull, starboard and port, are separated by the centerline plane, a vertical plane running longitudinally from bow to stern.
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 Transverse or athwartships dimensions called halfbreadths are measured from the centerline plane to the hull. The third reference plane, the midship section plane, is vertical and tranverse, thus it is orthogonal to both centerline and baseline planes. Amidships, refers to the location of the mid-ship section plane. Define the location of the midship section, which is at the midpoint between the perpendiculars.
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 Horizontal planes parallel to the baseline plane and at intervals of a few feet or meters above it are called waterplanes, and their intersections with the hull as shown in the lines drawing are waterlines. Planes parallel to the mid-ship section plane, shown usually at either ten or twenty equal intervals along the ship's length are called station planes and the true shapes of their intersections with the hull are referred to as stations. Stations are identified by numbers, starting with zero at the bow, increasing aft (the convention in the United States and Great Britain), or with zero at the stern, increasing forward (the convention in Europe and Asia).
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 The set of planes parallel to the centerline plane, at intervals defined by their distances off centerline, are the buttock planes, which intersect the hull in curves called buttocks.

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Molded Form, Dimensions The shapes shown in a lines plan is called the molded form of the vessel. The term derives from the fact that before computer-controlled plate cutting and frame bending machines were developed, workers called loftsmen made wooden full scale templates or molds to confirm to a full scale lines craving laid out on the floor. Each mold defined the shape of a particular part of the hull structure.

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 The principal dimensions of a ship are those important dimensions that define its basic size. Early in the design process the waterline at which the designer has estimated the ship will float when fully loaded is determined. That waterline is called the design waterline (DWL) or the load waterline. At the point of intersection of the DWL and the forward extremity of the ship (called the stem), a vertical line called the forward perpendicular (FP) is drawn. EME 4343 LT KDR MOHD AZZERI TLDM 18

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 The forward perpendicular thus defines the forward end of the immersed portion of the ship's hull. This definition of the location of the FP is universally applied to all ships. An after perpendicular (AP) is also defined for each ship, but its location is not specified by a unique definition for all vessels. It is intended to be representative of the after end of the ship's immersed body. Common choices for the AP are the centerline of the rudder stock, the after extremity of the design waterline.
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 The length measured from the FP to the AP is designated the length between perpendiculars (LBP) , a principal dimension that is used to determine the ship's coefficients of form and for structural calculations. For navigational and docking purposes, the extreme length of the ship, or length overall (LOA) is important. In certain hydrodynamic analyses, such as ship resistance calculations, the most characteristic length is the length on waterline AZZERI TLDM (LWL). EME 4343 LT KDR MOHD 21

 A deck line is usually curved longitudinally, reaching its highest point at the bow, its lowest point at or somewhat aft of amidships, and again rising toward, the stern. This curvature is known as sheer. The transverse, or athwartships, dimension of a ship is called the beam (B) or breadth. Since ships are not box-shaped, the beam varies with position along the ship's length, but in a list of principal dimensions, the molded beam refers to the molded measurement at the ship's widest point.
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 In the half cross section shown in Figure (b), assumed to be at amidships, the molded depth (D), or depth at side, is shown. It is the vertical distance at amidships from baseline (upper surface of the keel plate) to the top of the main deck beams at the side of the ship.

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 The deck may also have transverse curvature, called camber or round of beam or round down, as shown in the figure, such that it arches upward from the deck at side to the centerline. The ship's bottom is not flat, but slopes upward toward the sides, the bottom is said to have deadrise, or rise of bottom, or rise of floor. A flat plate keel, running along centerline, normally has no deadrise, and the half-width of such a keel is called the half-siding.
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 Two of the dimensions shown in Figure, namely the draft and the freeboard, are characteristics that depends on ship loading as well as ship geometry. Draft (T) is the vertical measurement from the waterline at any point on the hull to the bottom of the ship. The design draft shown on a lines plan to the design waterline is a molded draft, measured to the molded baseline.
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 Freeboard is the vertical distance from the waterline to the deck at side, or the difference between the depth at side and the draft at any point along the ship. Since freeboard is an important measure of the safety of a ship, every ship is assigned a minimum acceptable freeboard at amidships.

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 As illustrated in of Figure (c), the sides of some ship sections, curve inward from their maximum breadth to the point at which they join the deck. This characteristic is known as tumblehome, measured by the horizontal distance from maximum breadth to breadth at deck. The opposite kind of curvature, outward as the deck is approached, is called flare, shown in the same figure. Sections with flare are common at the bow of most ships.
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Table of Offsets In either case, the ship form information documented in the lines plan must be expressed numerically and at full ship scale. The numerical equivalent of a lines plan is a table of offsets. To define the three-dimensional ship form numerically, three coordinates of selected points on the molded hull must be specified: - Longitudinal distance front the FP, and AP - Half breadth, from the centerline plane. - Height above the baseline plane.
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 A typical table of offsets at stations is shown in Figure 2-4.

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Fundamental Hull Form Characteristics All of the hydrostatic properties to be calculated are derived from the following fundamental characteristics of the immersed hull form at each given even keel waterline.

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Properties of the Waterplane Four properties of each waterplane are required: 1. Area of the waterplane (AW.). The waterplane area is required to determine the change in mean draft when small weights are loaded or discharged. Units: feet2 or meter2

A =Ai = yi x
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 2. Center of flotation (CF). The CF is the centroid of the waterplane, also called the center of area or center of gravity of the waterplane. It is required for the calculation of changes in draft at bow and stern as a result of loading, discharging, or shifting weights aboard ship. The CF is located on centerline because of the symmetry of the waterplane. Its longitudinal position with respect to the midship section (or the FP or AP if preferred as reference planes) must be calculated. The distance so determined is called the longitudinal center of flotation (LCF).)Units of LCF: feet or meters from reference plane.
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 3. Longitudinal moment of inertia (IL). This property of the waterplane is its second moment of area about a transverse axis passing through the center of flotation. It is required for the longitudinal stability and trim (difference between forward and aft drafts). Units: feet4 or meters4. 4.Transverse moment of inertia (IT). It is the second moment of the waterplane about its centerline. It is required in the calculation initial transverse stability. Units: feet4 or meters4
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Properties of the Immersed Volume of the Hull Three quantities ass with the immersed volume must be determined: 1. Volume of displacement (V). This is the immersed volume itself the volume of displacement because it is a measure of the volume of fluid displaced by the floating ship. Fundamental property of hull form because the weight and mass of the ship are equal respectively to the weight and mass of the water displaced. The molded volume is calculated directly from the offsets of the molded form. Volumes of the shell and appendages like bilge, keel, rudder, etc., are then added to determine the total displacement at each draft. Units of V: feet3 or meters3.
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 2. Longitudinal center of buoyancy (LCB). This is the distance of B from a specified transverse reference plane, usually the midship section. Or LCB may be measured from FP or AP, so long as the reference axis is clearly stated. Units: feet or meters. 3. Vertical center of buoyancy (KB). KB is the height of the center of buoyancy above the baseline or keel. Units: feet or meters.

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Coefficient of form The coefficients of form are also useful tools for making first estimates of a ships resistance, powering and seagoing performance at early point in the design of a new ship. The most commonly used coefficients of form are defined below:

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The coefficients most commonly used by naval architects are as follows. Block coefficient ( CB) The ratio of the volume of displacement to the volume of rectangular block having a length, beam and draft equal to that maximum section area. CB = /LBT

The block coefficients of typical ships may vary from as low as 0.45 for a high speed combatant ship like a destroyer or fast frigate to as full as 0.85 or more for a very large crude oil tanker.
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 Block coefficient (CB)

Prismatic coefficient
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Prismatic coefficient ( CP) It is defined as the ratio of the volume of displacement to the volume of a prism whose cross section is shaped like the immersed midship section, and whose length is the length of the ship. CP = / L AM The coefficient that describes the fineness of the ends (bow and stern) of a hull without being influenced by its midship fineness . Typical values range from about 0.57 for a high-speed, fineended ship to 0.85 for a large bulk carrier or tanker.
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Midship section coefficient (CM) The fullness of the midship portion of a hull is described by the midship section coefficient (Cm), which is the ratio of the immersed midship section area to the area of its circumscribing rectangle CM = AM BT Very fine hulls typical of destroyers might have a CM of 0.75 or less, but most large merchant ships have vertical flat sides and a flat bottom at amidships, the section departing from a rectangle only by virtue of rounded bilges, so their mid-ship section coefficients areLTmore like 0.95 to 0.995. EME 4343 KDR MOHD AZZERI TLDM 44

Midship section coefficient (CM)

Waterplane coefficient (CWP)

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Water plane area coefficient (CWP) Waterplane fullness or fineness may be quantified by defining the waterplane coefficient (CW or Cwp). The ratio of the waterplane area at the designed or loaded waterline to the area of the circumscribing rectangle. CWP = AW / LWL B Typical values of Cw at the design waterline vary from 0.67 to 0.92.

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Where; L = Length on the designed waterline T = Draft to the designed waterline B = Beam amidships at the designed waterline = Volume of displacement at draft T AM = Area of the midship section at draft T AX = Area of maximum section to the designed waterline AW = Area of the waterplane at draft T = Displacement tonnage at draft T
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The Measure of Ship Size The ship size is usually characterized by displacement or tonnage. Displacement of ship is a statement of its weight and tonnage is generally a measure of its volume or capacity.

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General terms that are used to measure size of a ship: Deadweight (dwt) the weight of cargo, fuel, water stores, crew and effects (all variable loads). Lightweight weight of hull and machinery and permanent fixtures (all fixed weights) Displacement the total weight, deadweight plus lightweight. It is equal to the weight of water displaced by ship (Archimedes Principle). It is usually expressed in tons.
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 Gross register tonnage (grt) a measure of the total internal volume of the ship, including the hull, the superstructure and all enclosed spaces. It is used as the basis for such things as docking, pilotage and survey fees. Net register tonnage essentially a function of the total volume of cargo spaces and the number of passengers, a measure of earning capacity. It is used as the basis for such things as port and harbour, light and cargo dues. EME 4343 LT KDR MOHD AZZERI TLDM 50

Ship Drawing Drawing is a communication language that uses graphics to present an object, idea and design. As in old saying A single picture saved thousand words has made drawing as one of the most important entity and plays important roles in engineering fields. Ship is one of the engineering products that require a lot of drawings to represent its unique shape, function, components, structures, construction process etc. Therefore it is essential for those who involve in shipbuilding industry to understand the various types of ship drawing and know how to draw them.
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Types of ship drawings In general, drawing that associates with ship buildings can be divided into following categories: a. b. c. d. e.
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Lines Plan Drawing General Arrangement Drawing (GA) Shell Expansion Drawing (Scantling Drawing) Detail / Production Drawing 3-D Product Drawing
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Lines plan The exterior form of ships hull is a curved surface defined by the lines plan drawing or simply the lines. The lines consist of orthographic projections of the intersections of the hull form with three mutually perpendicular sets of planes, drawn to a suitable scale. General Arrangement Can be defined as the assignment of spaces for all the required functions and equipment, properly coordinated for location and access.

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Scantling drawing Is meant for the construction of the structures and plating of ship during construction. The structures dimensions and the plate thickness is determined to withstand the load that is going to apply to vessel during operation. Three locations of the structures are generally shown in the scantling drawing are midship, location of 25% from forward of perpendicular and location of 25% from aftward of perpendicular.

Detail / Production drawing Production drawing shows the details of the system onboard, the fabrication and assembly process of the system.
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Types of Material Using On Ship Structure

Steel in ships

Steel is the most important shipbuilding material and includes alloys containing Ferum with a content carbon (Fe-C) up to 15 per cent in terms of weight. Depending on its particular use certain other substances are added to modify the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the alloy.
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 In general, the carbon content and the method of annealing affect the microstructure that in turn determines the strength and hardness of the metal.

Classifications societies such as the American Bureau of Shipping, specify a range of grades of acceptable structural steels with regulations pertaining to their applications onboard ship.

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 A single grade of steel cannot be used for all parts of the ship because certain parts of ship structures are more highly stressed than others, and because notch sensitivity is strongly dependent on steel thickness. They also specify higher-strength steels because ship designers sometimes choose extra high strength steels for critical, highly stressed parts of the structure, so long as the added expense can be justified by the weight savings.
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 Ordinary-strength steels Six grades of ordinary strength hull structural steels are specified by the ABS. All must have a yield strength of at least 34,000 psi (235 MPa), an ultimate tensile strength between 58,000 and 71,000 psi (400 to 490 MPa), and a minimum, of 24 percent elongation of a 2-inch tensile specimen. The various grade differ in their required level of notch toughness, the requirements increasing in severity as the steel plate get thicker.
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 Higher-strength steel Two strength levels of higher-strength steels are specified, with three thickness grades in each strength category. The yield strength requirements are 45,000 psi (314MPa) and 51,000 psi (353 MPa), respectively. Ultimate strength range from 68,000 to 90,000 psi (471 to 618 MPa), and the minimum elongation is 22 percent. These steels are used when the premium cost of 25 to 50 percent over ordinarystrength steel and more difficult fabrications procedures can be justified.
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 Special steel Other steel with special properties are sometimes needed for special applications in ship structures. For low service temperatures like those found in refrigerated ships and liquefied gas carriers, low temperatures steels have been developed that have satisfactory notch toughness to service temperatures as low as -67F (-55C). For service in liquid cargo tanks that may be used to carry a wide variety of liquids, special corrosionresistant steel may be used. Alternatively, ordinary steel clad with corrosion resistant materials is also available.
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 Abrasion-resistant steels that resists wear caused by abrasive materials dropped into holds, especially ores carried in bulk, are sometimes used in ore carrier holds.

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Mechanical Properties of Steel The properties of ship steels that relate to its strength are called its mechanical properties. Many of the mechanical properties of interests to ship structural designers are determined from a standard test known as the tensile test of the steel. In the standard tensile test, a test specimen is subjected to pure tensile loading increasing from zero to the load required to break the specimen. A plot may be made of load against deformation, but the more common procedure is to plot stress ( = P/A) against strain ( = /L),
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 As shown in Figure 7-6, the curve shown in the figure is for typical mild steel or ordinary-strength hull structural steel, the most common steel used in hull construction. It can be seen from the figure that, initially, the relationship between stress and strain in a straight line; that is, stress is directly proportional to strain. This proportionality, known as Hookes Law, pertain up to point PL on the diagram, the proportional limit.

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 At about the same stress as the proportional limit, or slightly above it, a point (EL in the figure) called the elastic limit is reached. When loaded to any point below the elastic limit, steel has a very remarkable propertythe deformation or strain caused by the stress is completely recoverable when the load (or stress) is removed, and the piece of material return to its original dimension. This property is known as elasticity, and it is a most desirable quality of a structural material because a structure or machine part designed so that the elastic limit is never exceeded will never deform permanently.
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 At a stress slightly higher than the elastic limit, a mild steel specimen begins to experience a rapid increase in strain without any increase in stress. This phenomenon is called yield, and the stress at which it occurs is the yield stress or yield point, marked YP on the figure. Deformation beyond the elastic limit is called plastic deformation. Deformations or strains associated with yielding are not recoverable, and the material is said to take a permanent set.
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 Upon further loading, the steel the steel will continue to deform plastically while the stress increases to its maximum value, called the ultimate stress, marked U on the diagram. The ultimate stress of a material is a measure of its strength. Reduction in stress that takes place after the ultimate stress is reached, up to the point of rupture, marked R.

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Aluminum in Ship Structures Aluminum has not been used for the entire hull structure of large ships, its high strength-to-weights ratio makes it attractive for some special shop structural applications. Aluminum alloys are used as the principal hull material in a variety small vessels, especially highspeed craft such as planning boats, hydrofoil craft, and surface effect craft.
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 Aluminum is also very corrosion resistant, so long as care is taken in fabrication of aluminum structures to prevent them from being in direct contact with dissimilar metals by the use of gaskets of special coatings. The most prevalent use of aluminum in large ships has been in the superstructures, where the weight reduction results in improved stability.

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Composites Composite laminates such as glass-reinforced plastics have become common place as a hull structural material for a great variety of small craft such as recreational sailing and power yacht. These materials have the advantages of a high strength-to-weight ratio, low maintenance cost, and the ability to be fabricated into a virtually endless variety of types of laminates and shapes of hull.
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 Their disadvantages, however, mitigate against their use as a hull material for large ships: the high initial cost of the material compared to steel, a very modulus of elasticity (in the order of only 10 percent of that of steel), so that they deflect a great deal under load, and the fact that they are combustible, so that they cannot meet the fire-resistance regulations applicable to ships.

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Ship Design Concept

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