CHAPTER 1: TRANSPORT

QUESTIONS
1. What is leukaemia? 2. Does a cockroach have blood? 3. Does a cockroach have haemoglobin? How do the body tissues obtain oxygen? 4. Where is the hole for a patient who has a hole in the heart?

QUESTIONS
5. Why do some patients reject the organs they received from transplant? 6. Can we be infected with AIDS if we touch a HIV positive patient? 7. Does the blood clot in the blood vessels? Why? 8. What causes the heartbeat?

QUESTIONS
1. What is leukaemia? It is blood cancer in which the leukocytes count decreases while erythrocytes count increases. 2. Does a cockroach have blood? Yes. It has fluid called haemolymph which acts as a medium of transport.

QUESTIONS
3. Does a cockroach have haemoglobin? How do the body tissues obtain oxygen? No. oxygen enters the body directly through the spiracles at the sides of the body. Oxygen is then transported along the tracheal system directly into the body tissues. 4. Where is the hole for a patient who has a hole in the heart? Septum

QUESTIONS
5. Why do some patients reject the organs they received from transplant? The patients body recognises the transplanted organ as a foreign object. This triggers an immune response in which antibodies are produced to attack the organ. This may lead to death in a patient.

QUESTIONS
6. Can we be infected with AIDS if we touch a HIV positive patient? We would not be infected if there is no exposed wound at the point of contact between the two persons.

QUESTIONS
7. Does the blood clot in the blood vessels? Why? No. The blood inside the body contains heparin which prevents blood clotting in the blood vessels. 8. What causes the heartbeat? It is the result of the closing of the bicuspid and tricuspid valves as well as the semilunar valves.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Needed by

MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
Occurs in

animals

plants

animals
needs Made up of
Circulatory system heart

comprises
Lymph

types
Open system Closed system Blood vessel Blood Lymph nodes Lymphatic vessels

Lymphatic system

contributes
Defense system

Divided into
single double

includes
immune system

When damaged comprises

blood clotting mechanism

includes
incomplete

complete Blood cells, blood plasma

The circulatory system

Delivers nutrients and oxygen to cells Carries waste products away from the cells Protects the body from infections It has three major components;
A medium A pump Vessels

 A medium is required to carry materials around the circulatory system In human and animals blood In invertebrates (insects) haemolymph The blood is a type of connective tissue made up of plasma, blood cells and platelets.

 The heart functions as a muscular pump that circulates the blood throughout the body. The blood vessels are vessels consisting of arteries, capillaries and veins that are connected to the heart to deliver blood to all body tissues.

The functions of blood

Transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the whole body, carbon dioxide from cells to the lungs. Transport nutrients, hormones and antibodies throughout the body. Transport waste products away from the cells to the organs of the excretory system.

The functions of bloodcont

Regulates
The pH of body fluids The body temperature The water content of cells

Protects us
From excessive blood loss in an injury through the mechanism of blood clotting helps to heal wounds. From diseases and helps to fight against infections

The function of haemolymph

Transports water, inorganic salts and organic compounds throughout the haemocoel. Does not transport respiratory gases In insect, respiratory gases are transported via the tracheal system.

The composition of human blood

The differences between arteries, capillaries and veins

Characteristic Arteries Thick, muscular, elastic Small No valve High Capillaries Veins

Wall

One-cell thick, Thin, less no muscle or muscular, less elastic tissue elastic Very small No valve Very low Large Have valves Low

Lumen Valve Blood pressure

Characteristi c

Arteries

Capillaries
From arteries to veins

Veins
From all parts of the body to the heart

Direction of From the heart to the organs blood flow

Blood content

Oxygenated blood at the arteriole Oxygenated Deoxygenated ends & blood except the blood except the deoxygenated pulmonary artery pulmonary vein blood at the venule ends
To transport Allow rapid blood quickly at gaseous exchange high pressure between the blood from the heart to and the body cell the tissues by diffusion Allow blood from the tissues to return to the heart

Function

6
5 3

2
1

The human heart

4 2

The flow of blood in the heart

1. Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. 2. Deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body enters the right atrium via the vena cava. 3. As blood fills the atria contract and push the blood through the bicuspid and tricuspid valves into the two ventricles.

The flow of blood in the heart cont

4. When the ventricles contract, the semi-lunar valves are forced open and blood is pushed into the pulmonary arteries and the aorta. 5. Deoxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. 6. Oxygenated blood is pump through the aorta to the rest of the body.

The pumping of the heart

Each time the heart contracts, it acts as a pump which sends blood throughout the body. The heart is made up of a strong muscle, called the cardiac muscle.

The pumping of the heart cont

The cardiac muscle cells are interconnected This interconnection allows electrical impulses to spread rapidly through the heart and, at the same time, stimulates the cardiac muscle cells to contract in a coordinated movement.

The pumping of the heart cont

The cardiac muscle is myogenic. This means it contracts and relaxes without the need to receive stimulation by nerve impulses to make it contract. The contractions of the heart are initiated and coordinated by a pacemaker.

The pumping of the heart cont

The pacemaker is a cluster of specialised heart ,muscle cells that set the rate of contraction. It is located in the wall of the right atrium. The pacemaker generates electrical impulses which spread rapidly over the walls of both atria, causing the atria to contract rhythmically.

The pumping of the heart cont

The hearts primary pacemaker is the sinoatrial (SA) node because it keeps the heartbeats regular. From the SA node, the impulses are relayed to the atrioventricular (AV) node, located at the bottom of the right atrium. From the AV node, bundle of His fibres, bundle branches and Purkinje fibres send the impulses to the apex of the heart and throughout the walls of the ventricles.

The sequence of contractions of the heart muscle result in the pumping of the heart

1. The SA node generates electrical impulses. 2. The electrical impulses spread rapidly over the walls of both atria, making the walls contract simultaneously. Contractions of the atria help to pump blood into the ventricles. 3. The electrical signals reach the AV node. The bundle of His fibres, bundle branches and Purkinje fibres send the impulses to the apex of the heart. 4. The electrical impulses spread to the ventricles, causing them to pump and push blood out to the lungs and body

The regulatory mechanism of blood pressure

The regulatory mechanism of blood pressure

Blood pressure is the force that pumps blood along the arteries and the capillaries. When blood flows along a vessel, it exerts pressure against the walls of the blood vessel. Blood pressure is greater in arteries than in veins. Blood flows from areas of high pressure to areas of lower pressure. During the contraction of the ventricles, blood pressure is the highest in the aorta and large arteries when blood is pumped into the aorta and pulmonary arteries.

The regulatory mechanism of blood pressure cont.

At rest, a healthy adult has a blood pressure of 120/80 mm Hg The first number is the systolic pressure, the highest recorded pressure in an artery when the ventricles contract (systole stage). The second number, the diastolic pressure, is the lowest recorded pressure during the relaxation phase of the heartbeats (diastole stage)

Mechanism of blood clotting

Forms a temporary plug in leaking vessel

Wound in skin Platelet gather Sticky

ProduceTrombokinase
Need Vitamin K

Fibrinogen

Trombokinase

Thrombin
Ion Calcium Fibrin
Later

Prothrombin

Forms the threads of the clot

Harden (scab)

Wound in skin

Whenever an injury occurs a chain reaction is set off.

Wound in skin

Platelet

Platelets gather at a site of the injury and become sticky

Temporary plug

Wound in skin

Forming a temporary plug in the leaking vessel

Need Vitamin K

Trombokinase

Thrombin
Ion Calcium

Prothrombin

Prothrombin (non-active enzyme) need ion calcium to convert into thrombin.

Thread of clot

Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen (plasma protein formed by the liver) into insoluble fibrin. Fibrin forms the threads of the clot. A mesh-like network of fibrin traps red blood cells together, forming the blood clot, which later hardens into a scab.

Consequences of an impaired Blood Clotting Mechanism

Haemophilia
Haemophilia is a hereditary disease due to the lack of certain gene for the production of certain clotting factors. This is an impaired clotting mechanism which causes serious bleeding particularly in the joints. The afflicted person may die as a result of excessive bleeding from even minor cuts and bruises because blood clotting cannot take place.

Consequences of an impaired Blood Clotting Mechanism

Thrombosis

Sometimes a local blood clot (thrombus) is formed on the damaged rough inner wall of the artery. This may cause blockage of the artery, a condition known as thrombosis. When a thrombus dislodges and is carried away by blood circulation, it is known as an embolus. The embolus may be trapped in a small artery where it blocks the blood flow. This condition is called embolism.

Consequences of an impaired Blood Clotting Mechanism

Thrombosis

The blocked coronary artery cuts off the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscles, hence causes heart attack.

Formation of the Interstitial Fluid and Lymph

O2

CO2

Formation of the Interstitial Fluid and Lymph When the blood flows from arteries into capillaries, there is higher hydrostatic pressure at the arterial end of the capillaries. This high pressure forces some fluid out through the capillary walls into the intercellular spaces between the cells. Once the fluid leaves the capillary walls, it is called interstitial or tissue fluid. The interstitial fluids fills the spaces between the cells and constantly bathes the cells.

Formation of the Interstitial Fluid and Lymph The interstitial fluid that has not been reabsorbed into the bloodstream goes into the lymph capillaries. Once inside the lymph capillaries, the fluid is known as lymph.

Composition of the Interstitial Fluid The composition of the interstitial fluid is similar to the blood plasma.
Consists of water, dissolved nutrients, hormones, waste products, gases, small proteins and leucocytes. Has no erythrocytes, platelets and large protein molecules (albumin, globulin and fibrinogen)

Importance of the Interstitial Fluid Interstitial fluid is important because :

It forms the internal environment of the body. It bathes the cells and supplies them with oxygen and nutrients which diffuse from the blood through the interstitial fluid into the cells. Excretory waste products (carbon dioxide and urea) diffuse out of the cells into the interstitial fluid.

Structure of the Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is a one-way system consisting of a network of lymph capillaries, lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes. The lymph capillaries are blind-ended tubes located in the spaces between the cells. The interstitial fluid that has not been reabsorbed into the bloodstream goes into the lymph capillaries. Once inside the lymph capillaries, the fluid is known as lymph.

Structure of the Lymphatic System Lymph is the colourless fluid found in the lymphatic vessels. Lymph capillaries converge into larger lymphatic vessels. Lymph nodes are located at intervals along the lymphatic vessels. The lymph nodes produce lymphocytes that help to protect the body against infections.

Structure of the Lymphatic System Lymph contains a higher number of lymphocytes than blood. Within the lymphatic vessels are oneway valves to ensure the continuous flow of the lymph to prevent the backflow of the lymph.

The Relationship between the Lymphatic System and Circulatory System

Lymph is returned to the circulatory system via the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct. The vessels from the left side of the body flow into the thoracic duct. The thoracic duct is the largest lymphatic vessel in the body that carries lymph to the left subclavian vein back into the bloodstream. The right lymphatic duct transport lymph from the right side of the head and chest into the right subclavian vein.

Role of the Lymphatic System in Transport Collects the interstitial fluid and returns it to the circulatory system. Fats and fat-soluble vitamins are absorb through lacteals and transported to the blood circulatory system. The lymph nodes filter out bacteria and other foreign particles. Phagocytes present in the nodes engulf and destroy foreign particles. Lymphocytes produce antibodies which aid in the destruction of pathogens and the neutralization of toxins.

Defence system
Non specific

Divided into

specific

Divided into
1st line 2nd line

is
3rd line

through
lymphocyte
immunity

eg
Skin mucous membrane

are
Phagocyte

produce
antibody

Carry out
Phagocytosis

gives
immunisation

Divided into
passive
active

Divided into
artificial natural

Divided into
natural artificial

ROLE OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN THE BODYS DEFENCE SYSTEM

Bodys Defence Mechanisms

Beside transport function, our circulatory system also defends the body against disease abolition of the diseasecausing microorganisms or pathogens. There are three lines of defence mechanisms in our body: The first line of defence: prevention of pathogens entering the body. The second line of defence: killing the pathogens that entered our body by action or phagocytic white blood cells. The third line of defence: killing the pathogens by means of antibody actions.

The First Line of Defence Prevention of pathogens entering the body by mean of physical and chemical barriers. A non-specific defence, that is never differentiate among various type of pathogens. i. Skin As a physical barrier, skin is made up of a dead keratinised layer, tough enough for pathogens to penetrate. If there is a scratch or cut, the blood clots to seal the wound and avoids infections. Also acts as chemical barrier as it secretes sweat which contains salt. Sebaceous glands produce sebum which contains acid and oil. All these substances are unfavourable for growth of microorganisms. Sweat also contain lysozyme which destroy pathogens.

The First Line of Defence

ii. Tears and Saliva

Contain lysozymes which protect the eyes and mouth from pathogen invasion.

iii. Gastric juice in stomach

Contain hydrochloric acid which destroys most pathogens in foods and drinks taken.

iv. Mucous membranes

Secrete mucus in nasal cavity and trachea to trap the dust particles and spores. The cilia in the respiratory track sweep the trapped particles to the pharynx and stimulates sneeze or cough to expel out the

The Second Line of Defence

The killing action brought by some of the white blood cells like neutrophil and monocyte. They are called phagocytes and the process is phagocytosis. It is also a non-specific defence. Phagocytosis occur when pathogens get through the first line defence. Phagocytes move to the infected area due to the stimulation by chemicals released by damaged cells, example cut skin. Sometimes the phagocytes are killed by toxins produced by the pathogens. Dead bacteria, tissue cells and phagocytes may accumulate to form pus at the site of injury

 The steps involved in phagocytosis by a phagocyte e.g. Neutrophil

vacuole pathoge n

pseudopodiu m

 Neutrophil moves toward a bacterium by using its pesudopodia. Pseudopodia elongate and surround the bacterium. Neutrophil engulfs the bacterium to form a vacuole. Enzymes (lysozyme) are released into the vacuole to digest the pathogen. Useful product of digestion is the absorbed and assimilated by phagocyte

The Third Line of Defence

The third line of defence in the body is antibody. Antibody is a kind of protein released by lymphocyte in response to the presence of foreign substance, called antigen in our body. Lymphocytes are white blood cells found in lymph nodes and in the blood circulatory system. There are two types of lymphocytes, B-lymphocyte that secretes antibodies and T-lymphocyte that helps B-lymphocyte in antibody production. An antigen is a substance (usually protein) normally found on the outer surface of pathogen. Different types of pathogen act as different types of antigen.

The Third Line of Defence

The third line of defence is a specific defence because when a specific antigen invades the body, lymphocyte is stimulated and produces specific antibody to destroy these specific antigens. This response is known as immune response because it resists the body from pathogens or diseases. After any infection, some lymphocytes remain in the body as memory cells which may last for several months or years. This memory cells help to defend the body against next infection by the same antigen. During this period, someone is sad

The Third Line of Defence

What is the mechanism used by antibodies to destroy antigen? Antibody binds to the specific antigen binding site Hence, inactivates antigen by several ways Neutralisation

Antibody or antitoxin coats the bacterial toxin or viral binding sites

The Third Line of Defence

Disintegration (lysis) Breakdown the bacterial cell wall.

Agglutination

Agglutinates bacteria cell and stops their moving and stimulate phagocytosis

The Third Line of Defence

Opsonisation

Attaches itself to the bacteria surface and stimulates phagocytosis.

AIDS
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Caused by HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus Attacks the central nervous system and helper T-cells in the bodys immune system. Helper T-cells are essential to activate Bcell lymphocyte in antibody production. HIV needs 8-10 years of incubation period before the symptom appears.

AIDS
The immune system of infected person gradually becomes weakened and defenceless against many pathogens. Decreases in function of central nervous system followed by body weight loss. Eventually death occurs. The patient does not die from AIDS itself but from other secondary infections such as pneumonia and meningitis, tuberculosis, fungal infections or certain forms of cancer like Kaposis sarcoma

AIDS Transmission Methods

HIV only survive in body fluid such as semen, blood and vaginal fluid. Therefore, HIV can be transmitted through : sexual intercourse Blood transfusion Injection with contaminated needle used to inject drugs HIV infected mother can pass HIV to her baby through placenta or breast milk. HIV cannot be spread by touching, sharing of food or through the use of public toilets.

Appreciating a Healthy Cardiovascular System

Disorder of the heart and blood circulatory system; hypertension, artherosclerosis, coronary thrombosis, arteriosclerosis, angina, stroke. Factors that contribute to cardiovascular diseases;
Obesity A diet high in saturated fat and cholesterol in daily life and low in fibres. Salty foods Lack of exercise Cigarette smoking

Plants
Capillary action Root pressure

need
Water & mineral Food

involves
xylem

Transported by involves
phloem structure Vascular tissues translocation

Transpirational pull

Results in
Transpiration

Relate to

affecting
Factors 1. Air movement 2. Temperature 3. Light intensity 4. Relative humidity

Relate to

Found in
stem root leaf