1

 What are Carbon Credits?

Carbon Credit 1 Metric Ton of CO2 or its equivalent Greenhouse gas (GHG) which is an entitled certificate by UNFCC. A permit that allows the holder to emit one ton of carbon dioxide Credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced their green house gases below their emission quota. Carbon credits are a key component of national and international emissions trading schemes.

Carbon Credit Need for carbon credits : Over millions of years, our planet has managed to regulate concentrations of greenhouse gases through sources (emitters) and sinks (reservoirs). Carbon (in the form of CO2 and methane) is emitted by volcanoes, by rotting vegetation, by burning of fossil fuels and other organic matter. But CO2 is absorbed, by trees, forests or by some natural phenomenon like photosynthesis and also oceans to some extent. In modern times the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas in which carbon has been stored for millions of years combined with accelerated land clearance hassled to exceptional levels of greenhouse gas emissions. Vegetation, largely forest, is already absorbing about one-third of humaninduced emissions, planting more forests could increase absorption. Carbon sinks cant keep up, and concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have risen dramatically leading to an enhanced greenhouse effect which will result in very rapid warming of the worlds climate.

Carbon Credit Emergence of Carbon credit: The Protocol was enforced from Feb05. Kyoto Protocol created legally binding emission targets for developing nations. To meet these targets, nations must limit CO2 emissions. It is one of the outcomes of the Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement between more than 170 countries. The concept of carbon credits came into existence as a result of increasing awareness of the need for pollution control.
Carbon credits provide a way to reduce greenhouse effect

emissions on an industrial scale by capping total annual emissions and letting the market assign a monetary value to any shortfall through trading. Credits can be exchanged between businesses or bought and sold in international markets at the prevailing market price. Credits can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world.

Carbon Credit
There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to

commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis.
Carbon credits are an element used to aid in regulation of the

amount of gases that are being released into the air. This is part of a larger international plan which has been created in an effort to reduce global warming and its effects.
The plan works by capping the amount of total emissions that can

be released by one company or business.

Carbon Credit
If there is a shortfall in the amount of gases that are used,

there is a monetary value assigned to this shortfall and it may be traded. These credits are often traded between businesses.

However, they also are bought and sold in international

markets at whatever the determined market value for them is.

There are also times when these credits are used to fund

carbon reduction plans between trading partners.

CARBON CREDIT
There are two types of market in carbon credit:
1. Compliance Market (Annexure I countries) 2. Voluntary Market (Non- Annexure countries)

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CARBON TRADING
A carbon trading system allows the development of a

market through which carbon dioxide or carbon equivalents can be traded between participants, whether countries or companies. Each carbon credit is equal to 100 metric tons of carbon dioxide, which can be traded or exchanged in market.
There are two kinds of carbon trading Emission trading

and trading in Project-based Credits. The two categories are put together as Hybrid trading System

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TYPES OF CARBON TRADING

1. EMISSION TRADING: A company can reduce its emission by half the cost of allowance bought from other company On the other hand, a company with higher expenditure for reduction of its emissions buys the required allowance from other company to save its emission cost 2. PROJECT-BASED TRADING: Government & World Bank subsidized credit for projectbased trading to the companies calculating how much carbon dioxide equivalent they save/reduces Project-based Credit trading includes baseline-and-credit trading and offset trading
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TYPES OF CARBON TRADING

3. HYBRID TRADING SYSTEM:
In Hybrid trading system, both emission trading and

offset trading are used and try to make allowance exchangeable for project-based credits.
Hybrid trading system is enormously complex as it is not

only difficult to try to create credible credit and make them equivalent to allowance

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CARBON NETWORK

Seller Exchange
Banks Individuals Trading exchange Banks NGO & Govt. Consultants Annex 2 & 3 countries Brokers & Traders Intermediary service providers

Buyers
Annex 1 country

Banks
Individuals Consultants Others NGO & Government
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Others

Consultants

PARTIES INVOLVED IN CARBON TRADING

PROJECT ENTITY: Joint venture company or a limited partnership that are set up specifically to undertake the project SPONSOR: Individuals, companies or other entities that support a project who have a direct or indirect interest in the project. LENDER: If the project is financed through debt, one or more banks may be involved in providing this.
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PARTIES INVOLVED IN CARBON TRADING

EQUITY PROVIDER: Equity may be provided by project sponsors or third party investors who ensure that the project produces a ROI as set out in the business plan or prospectus. CONSTRUCTOR: Who have responsibility for the completion of the works, & often have to assume liability for finishing construction on time and to budget. OPERATOR: Person responsible for the operation and maintenance of the project facilities once completed
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PARTIES INVOLVED IN CARBON TRADING

SUPPLIER BUYER INSURER: If a risk is to be mitigated by purchasing insurance, the lender will need to be satisfied as to the track record and credit-worthiness of the insurer. RATING AGENCIES: The rating agencies may be involved if the financing of the project involves the issue of securities

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PARTIES INVOLVED IN CARBON TRADING

EXPERTS: Experts are individuals who give advise on key technical, engineering, environmental and risk aspects of a project. Experts need to be able to demonstrate a track record of expertise in the relevant area HOST GOVERNMENT: The objectives and role of the host government will vary but may involve economic, social and environmental guidelines and issuance of relevant consents, permits and licenses
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ADVANTAGES OF CARBON TRADING

New cash source to companies who are able to maintain

their emission levels well within the permissible limits.

The overall ecological balance is preserved
The company or country gets rewarded for applying clean

technology in its production process.

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ADVANTAGES OF CARBON TRADING

A much better corporate and social image which wins

public approval
Encourages activities like tree plantings which would

help reduce soil salinity, improve water quality and enhance biodiversity

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KEY RISKS AND UNCERTAINTIES

The extent to which the Kyoto Protocol guidelines are

implemented & followed

The attitude of US which is the biggest polluter and had

refused to sign the treaty

The final rules and decisions relating to an emissions

trading market

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POSITION OF INDIA
India is considered as the largest beneficiary, claiming

about 31 % of the total world carbon trade through CDM

It is expected to rake in at least Rs 22,500 crore to Rs

45,000 crore over a period of time and Indian companies are expected to corner at least 10 per cent of the global market in the initial year
If India can capture a 10% share of the global CDM

market, annual CER revenues to the country could range from US$ 10 million to 300 million
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PRESENT STATUS OF DUMPING GROUNDS IN INDIA

In India, due to increased population & commercial

development, cities are facing problems of Municipal Solid Waste disposal. The urban population in larger towns & cities in India is increasing at a decadal growth rate of above 40% Various processes/technologies available to reduce the amount of Municipal Solid Waste are as follows:
Physical (a. Pelletisation)
Biochemical (a. Aerobic Composting b. Anaerobic Digestion) Thermal (a. Incineration b. Gasification)
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CARBON TRADING AT MCX

The Multi Commodity Exchange of India Ltd entered into

an alliance with the Chicago Climate Exchange in 2005 to introduce carbon credit trading in India
MCX is the futures exchange. People here are getting

price signals for the carbon for the delivery in next five years. The exchange is only for Indians and Indian companies
The Indian government has not fixed any norms nor has

it made it compulsory to reduce carbon emissions to a certain level. So, people who are coming to buy are actually financial investors
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CARBON TRADING AT MCX

TRADING BENEFITS:
Sellers and intermediaries can hedge against price risk Advance selling could help project to generate liquidity

and thereby reducing its cost of implementation There is no counter party risk as exchange guarantee the trade The price discovery on the exchange platform ensure the fair price for both the sellers and buyers Bring players to a single platform

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OUTLOOK FOR INDIA

India is one of the exempted from this protocol as they

are stated as developing countries, but overseas companies can buy carbon credits from these countries.
Now companies in India can use Carbon credits to get

liberal loans, incentives by multinationals in their countries and benefits like better social and ecological visibility

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INDIAN COMPANIES: TAKING ADVANTAGE

Gujarat Fluoro Chemicals is amongst first companies

worldwide to get its carbon emission reduction project certified. It is set to reap rewards from the sale of CER credits from this year itself
Tata Steel is believed to have signed a MoU with the

Japanese government agency NEDO for sale of credits accruing to it from carbon reduction following the implementation of an over Rs 250 crore modernization and upgradation project
for carbon credit benefits. Most of them are replacing coalbased technologies with more environment-friendly processes
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NTPC and several state electricity boards have also applied

INDIAN COMPANIES: TAKING ADVANTAGE

Of the 15 projects approved by the UNFCCC so far, four

are Indian. These four are:

Gujarat Flurochemicals, Kalpataru Power Transmission Ltd, The Clarion power project in Rajasthan and The Dehar power project in Himachal Pradesh

The country accounted for 283 CDM projects out of the

819 registered by the CDM Executive Board, the environment ministry, the World Bank and the International Emissions Trading Association

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CONCLUSIONS
There is a great opportunity awaiting for India in carbon

trading which is estimated to go up to $100 billion by 2010.

In the new regime, the country could emerge as one of

the largest beneficiaries accounting for 25 % of the total world carbon trade, says a recent World Bank report
Analysts

claim if more companies absorb clean technologies, total CERs with India could touch 500 million.
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CONCLUSIONS
Of the 391 projects sanctioned, the UNFCCC has

registered 114 from India, the highest for any country.

There are projects range from cement, steel, biomass

power, bio-gases co-generation and municipal solid waste to energy, municipal water pumping and natural gas power. The ministry has given the host-country clearance, the CDM projects will have to be approved by the executive board of the UNFCCC

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BATTERY TECHNOLOGY

Commercial Cells.
Galvanic cells used as source of electric energy for various consumer, industrial and military applications. Classification: Primary Cells. Eg.: Dry cell Secondary Cells. Eg.: Lead acid cell.

Basic Requirements Of Primary Cell.

Compactness and lightweight.
Fabricated from easily available raw materials. Economically priced.

High energy density and constant voltage.

Benign environmental properties Longer shelf life and discharge period.

Leak proof containers and variety of design options.

Basic Requirements Of Secondary Cell.

Long shelf-life and cycle life. High power to weight ratio Short time for recharging Tolerance to service condition. High voltage & high energy density

Primary Cells.
Produce electricity from chemicals that are sealed into it. Cannot be recharged as the cell reaction cannot be reversed efficiently by recharging. The cell must be discarded after discharging. e.g. Zinc - manganese dioxide cell (Dry cell) Mercuric oxide Zinc cell. Silver oxide zinc cell.

Secondary Cells
Generation of electric energy, that can be restored to its original charged condition after its discharge by passing current flowing in the opposite direction. These cells have a large number of cycles of discharging and charging. They are known as rechargeable cells, storage cells, or accumulators. e.g. Lead storage cell. Nickel- cadmium cell. Lithium- ion batteries.

DRY CELL(LECLANCHE CELL)

 Anode: Zinc metal container. Cathode: MnO2 + Carbon (powdered graphite) Electrolyte: Aqueous paste of NH4Cl and ZnCl2 Cell Scheme:

Zn(s)/ ZnCl2(aq),NH4Cl(aq),MnO2(s)/C
O.C.V. = 1.5 V

Working.
Primary Electrode Reactions:

Anode: Zn(s)Zn2+ (aq)+ 2eCathode: 2MnO2(s)+H2O(l) + 2e- Mn2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq) Net Reaction: Zn(s)+2MnO2(s)+ H2O(l)
(aq)

Zn2+(aq)+Mn2O3(s)+2OH-

 Secondary Reactions:

NH4+(aq)+OH-(aq) NH3(g)+H2O(l) Zn2+(aq)+2NH3(s)+2Cl - [Zn(NH3)2 Cl2] Zn + 2MnO2 + 2NH4Cl [Zn(NH3)2Cl2]+ H2O+ Mn2O3

 Applications:

In small portable appliances where small amount of current is needed. In consumer electronic devices- quartz wall clocks, walkman etc. Advantages: Dry cell is cheap. Normally works without leaking (leak proof cells). Has a high energy density. It is not toxic It contains no liquid electrolytes.

Disadvantages

Voltage drops due to build up of reaction products around the electrodes when current is drawn rapidly from it . It has limited shelf life because the zinc is corroded by the faintly acid,ammonium chloride. The shelf life of dry cell is 6-8 months. They cannot be used once they get discharged. Its emf decreases during use as the material is consumed.

Lead Acid Battery

LEAD STORAGE BATTERY

 Anode: Spongy lead on lead grid. Cathode: Porous PbO2. Electrolyte: H2SO4(aq)( 20 %) (density 1.21-1.30g/ml) Cell Scheme: Pb/PbSO4;H2SO4(aq);PbSO4;PbO2/Pb O.C.V. = 2V (Pair of plates)

Reactions during discharging

Anode: Pb (s) Pb2+ (aq) + 2e-

Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) PbSO4(s) Pb(s)+ SO42-(aq) PbSO4(aq) + 2e Cathode:PbO2(s)+ 4H+(aq)+2e- Pb2+(aq)+ 2H2O(l) Pb2+(aq)+SO42-(aq)PbSO4(s) PbO2(s)+4H+(aq)+SO42-(aq)+2e- PbSO4(s)+ 2H2O(l) Overall: Pb (s)+PbO2 (s)+4H+(aq)+ 2SO42-(aq) 2PbSO4 (s)+2H2O(l)

Charging the Lead-acid battery:

Limitations.
Self discharge: They are subject to self discharge with H2

evolution at negative plates and O2 evolution at positive plates.

Pb +H2SO4 PbSO4 + H2 PbO2 + H2SO4 PbSO4 +H2O +1/2 O2 SO42- +2 H+ (From dissociation of water) H2O H+ +OH-

H2SO4

Loss of Water: Due to evaporation, self discharge and

electrolysis of water while charging. Hence water content must be regularly checked and distilled water must be added.

 Sulfation: If left in uncharged state, for a prolonged

period, or operated at too high temperatures or at too high acid concentrations, transformation of porous

PbSO4 into dense and coarse grained form by re

crystallization. * This results in passivation of negative plates inhibiting their charge acceptance.

 Corrosion of Grid: Can occur due to overcharging when grid

metal gets exposed to the electrolyte. This weakens the grid and increases the internal resistance of the battery.
Effectiveness of battery is reduced at low temperature due to

increase in the viscosity of electrolyte.

 Recent years have seen the introduction of maintenance free

batteries without a gas release vent. Here the gassing is controlled by careful choice of the composition of the lead alloys used i.e. by using a Pb-Ca (0.1 % ) as the anode which inhibits the electrolysis of water Alternatively, some modern batteries contain a catalyst (e.g. a mixture of 98% ceria (cerium oxide) & 2% platinum, heated to 1000o C) that combines the hydrogen and oxygen produced during discharge back into water. Thus the battery retains its potency and requires no maintenance. Such batteries are sealed as there is no need to add water and this sealing prevents leakage of cell materials.

Applications.
*Automative: For starting, lighting and ignition

of IC engine driven vehicles. *Consumer Applications: Emergency lighting, security alarm system. *Heavy duty Application: Trains, lift trucks, mining machines etc.

Advantages: A lead storage battery is highly efficient. The voltage efficiency of the cell is defined as follows. Voltage efficiency = average voltage during discharge average voltage during charge The voltage efficiency of the lead acid cell is about 80 %. The near reversibility is a consequence of the faster rate of the chemical reactions in the cell i.e. anode oxidizes easily and cathode reduces easily leading to an overall reaction with a high negative free energy change.

A lead acid battery provides a good service for several years. Its larger versions can last 20 to 30 years, if carefully attended (i.e. longer design life) It can be recharged. The number of recharges possible range from 300 to 1500, depending on the batterys design and conditions. The sealed lead-acid batteries can withstand upto 2000 rechargings. Generally the most costly, largest, heaviest cells are the longest lived. The batterys own internal self discharging is low. The length of time that is generally required for recharging process is less i.e. recharge time is 2-8 hours depending on the status of battery.

 Low environmental impact of constituent materials is an

added advantage It has sensitivity to rough handling and good safety characteristics. Ease of servicing as indicated by several local battery service points. It is a low- cost battery with facilities for manufacture throughout the world using cheap materials.

NICKEL- CADMIUM CELL

Anode: Porous cadmium powder compressed to cylindrical pellets. Cathode: Ni(OH)3 or NiO(OH) mixed with 20%

graphite powder
Electrolyte: 20-28% Aq. KOH jelled with a jelling agent.

Cell Scheme:
Cd/Cd(OH)2,KOH,Ni(OH)2, Ni(OH)3/Ni O.C.V. = 1.25V

Reactions during discharging.

Anode: Cd(s)+2OH-(aq)Cd(OH)2(s)+ 2eCathode: 2Ni(OH)3(s)+2e- 2Ni(OH)2(s)+2OH-(aq)
Net Reaction:

Cd(s)+2Ni(OH)3(s) 2Ni(OH)2(s)+ Cd(OH)2(s)

Charging reactions: Anode: Cd(OH)2(s)+2e- Cd(s) +2OH-(aq) Cathode: 2Ni(OH)2(s) +2OH-(aq)2Ni(OH)3(s)+2eNet: 2Ni(OH)2(s)+Cd(OH)2(s)2Ni(OH)3(s)+ Cd(s)

Discharging reaction:
Anode: Cd(s)+2OH-(aq) Cd(OH)2(s) + 2e Cathode: 2NiO (OH) (s) + 2 H2O + 2 e-

2Ni (OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) Net Reaction: Cd(s) + 2NiO (OH) (s) + 2H2O 2 Ni(OH)2 (s) + Cd(OH)2(s)

Charging reactions:

-ve pole: Cd(OH)2 (s) + 2e- Cd(s) + 2OH-(aq) +ve pole: 2 Ni(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) 2 NiO(OH) (s) + 2H2O+2e Overall reaction: 2 Ni(OH)2 (s) + Cd(OH)2(s) 2 NiO(OH) (s) + Cd(s) +2H2O(l)

Applications.
In flash lights, photoflash units and portable electronic equipments. In emergency lighting systems, alarm systems. In air crafts and space satellite power systems. For starting large diesel engines and gas turbines etc.,

Advantages.
Can be recharged many times. They maintain nearly constant voltage level throught their discharge. There is no change in the electrolyte composition during the operation. It can be left unused for long periods of time at any state of charge without any appreciable damage (i.e. long shelf life). It can be encased as a sealed unit like the dry cell because gassing will not occur during nominal discharging or recharging. They exhibit good performance ability at low temperatures.

They can be used to produce large instantaneous currents as

high as 1000-8000 A for one second. It is a compact rechargeable cell available in three basic

configurations button, cylindrical and rectangular.

They have low internal resistance.

Disadvantages.

It poses an environmental pollution hazard due to higher toxicity of metallic cadmium than lead. Cadmium is a heavy metal and its use increases the weight of batteries, particularly in larger versions. Cost of cadmium metal and hence the cost of construction of NiCad batteries is high. The KOH electrolyte used is a corrosive hazardous chemical.

Fuel Cells.
A fuel cell is a galvanic cell in which chemical energy of a fuel oxidant system is converted directly into electrical energy in a continuous electrochemical process. Cell Schematic Representation: Fuel;electrode/electrolyte/electrode/oxidant. e.g. H2-O2; CH3OH-O2

 The reactants (i.e. fuel + oxidant) are constantly supplied

from outside and the products are removed at the same rate as they are formed.
Anode:

Fuel+ oxygen Oxidation products+ ne Cathode:

Oxidant + ne- Reduction products.

Requirements Of Fuel Cell.

Electrodes: Must be stable, porous and

good

conductor. Catalyst: Porous electrode must be impregnated with catalyst like Pt, Pd, Ag or Ni, to enhance otherwise slow electrochemical reactions. Optimum Temperature: Optimum. Electrolyte: Fairly concentrated.

Hydrogen Oxygen Fuel Cell

 Anode: Porous graphite electrodes impregnated with

finely divided Pt/Pd.

Cathode: Porous graphite electrodes impregnated with

finely divided Pt/Pd.

Electrolyte: 35-50% KOH held in asbestos matrix.

Operating Temperature: 90oC.

 Anode :

2H2(g) +40H- (aq) 4H2O(l)+4e Cathode:

O2(g)+2H2O(l)+4e- 4OH(aq)
Net Reaction:

2H2(g)+O2(g)2H2O(l).

*Water should be removed from the cell.

*O2should be free from impurities.

Applications.
Used as energy source in space shuttles e.g. Apollo

spacecraft. Used in small- scale applications in submarines and other military vehicles. Suitable in places where, environmental pollution and noise are objectionable.

CH3OH-O2 Fuel Cell

Both electrodes: Made of porous nickel

plates impregnated with finely- divided Platinum. Fuel: Methyl alcohol. Oxidant: Pure oxygen / air. Electrolyte: Conc.Phosphoric acid/Aq.KOH Operating Temperature: 150-200oC.

 The emf of the cell is 1.20 V at 25oC.

MeOH is one of the most electro active organic fuels in

the low temperature range as *It has a low carbon content *It posseses a readily oxidizable OH group *It is miscible in all proportions in aqueous electrolytes.

At anode:
CH3OH + 6OH- CO2 + 5H2O + 6e At cathode:

3/2 O2 +3H2O + 6e- 6OH-

Net Reaction:
CH3OH +3/2O2 CO2 + 2H2O. It is used in millitary applications and in large scale power

production. It has been used to power television relay stations.

Advantages Of Fuel Cells.

High efficiency of the energy conversion process.
Silent operation. No moving parts and so elimination of wear and tear. Absence of harmful waste products. No need of charging.

Limitations Of Fuel Cells.

Cost of power is high as a result of the cost of electrodes.
Fuels in the form of gases and O2 need to be stored in

tanks under high pressure. Power output is moderate. They are sensitive to fuel contaminants such as CO,H2S, NH3 & halides, depending on the type of fuel cell.

Differences.
Fuel Cell

*Do not store chemical energy *Reactants are fed from The reactants form an outside continuously. integral part of it. *Need expensive noble These conditions are metal catalysts. not required *No need of charging Get-discharged when stored up energy is exhausted. *Never become dead Limited life span in use *Useful for long-term Useful as portable power services electricity generation.

Galvanic Cell Stores chemical energy

Lithium-Ion and Lithium-Ion Polymer Batteries

Great energy-to-weight ratio (~160 Wh/kg compared to

30-80 Wh/kg in NiMH) No memory effect. Slow self-discharge rate. Battery will degrade from moment it is made. Protection circuits are required to protect the battery. Li-Ion Polymer batteries are significantly improved. Higher energy density. Lower manufacturing costs More robust to physical damage Can take on more shapes.

Lithium (Ion) Battery Development

In the 1970s, Lithium metal was used but its

instability rendered it unsafe and impractical. Lithium-cobalt oxide and graphite are now used as the lithium-Ion-moving electrodes. The Lithium-Ion battery has a slightly lower energy density than Lithium metal, but is much safer. Introduced by Sony in 1991.

Advantages of Using Li-Ion Batteries

POWER High energy density means greater

power in a smaller package.

160% greater than NiMH 220% greater than NiCd

HIGHER VOLTAGE a strong current allows it to

power complex mechanical devices. LONG SHELF-LIFE only 5% discharge loss per month.

10% for NiMH, 20% for NiCd

Disadvantages of Li-Ion
EXPENSIVE -- 40% more than NiCd. DELICATE -- battery temp must be monitored from

within (which raises the price), and sealed particularly well. REGULATIONS -- when shipping Li-Ion batteries in bulk (which also raises the price). Class 9 miscellaneous hazardous material UN Manual of Tests and Criteria (III, 38.3)

Reserve battery
A reserve battery, also called stand-by battery, is

a primary battery where part is isolated until the battery needs to be used. When long storage is required, reserve batteries are often used, since the active chemicals of the cell are segregated until needed, thus reducing selfdischarge. [1] A reserve battery is distinguished from a backup battery, in that a reserve battery is inert until it is activated, while a backup battery is already functional, even if it is not delivering current.

Types of Reserve Battery

Aluminium battery, a variant to zinc-air battery where

aluminium and air are used Silver-zinc battery, often found in old missiles Thermal battery, a class of battery types with molten salt as an electrolyte. The battery is in an inert state until the electrolyte melts through heating. Common in military applications, especially for missiles and proximity fuzes Applications include V-2 rockets, AIM-9 Sidewinder, MIM-104 Patriot, BGM71 TOW, BGM-109 Tomahawk, many nuclear weapons, and other single-use applications. Water-activated battery, a class of batteries where the electrolyte is water that has to be added, such as HydroPak or NoPoPo.

Activation
Reserve batteries may be activated by addition of water,

by adding electrolyte, by introducing a gas into the cell that is either the active cathode material or part of the electrolyte, or by heating a solid electrolyte to a temperature at which is becomes conductive. The missing element of the battery can be added before use in several ways. The battery can have water or electrolyte added manually, the battery can be activated when the system is dropped into the water (such as in a sonobuoy), or electrolyte can be stored in a capsule within the battery and released by mechanical means, an electrical trigger, or by spin or shock.

 A molten-electrolyte battery is activated by igniting

a pyrotechnic heat source. The battery delivers current for a short time (seconds to a few minutes), but some thermal batteries can be stored 10 years or more without deterioration. Reserve batteries remain uncommon in civilian applications because of their higher cost and relatively short life after activation. In missiles, reserve batteries typically use a small container of pressurized air to force the electrolyte from storage tank into the battery. For safe disposal, the air must be vented. This led to use of the term "venting" for preparing of any kind of battery for disposal, whether draining electrolyte from lead cells or full discharge of lithium batteries. In ordnance, the batteries are activated by acceleration during gun firing, or by spinning the projectile in flight.[2]

Uses
These batteries are used

in radiosondes, missiles, projectile and bomb fuzes, and various weapon systems. While not advertised as reserve batteries, the principle is illustrated by the sale of "dry charged" car batteries where the electrolyte is added at the time of sale. Another example is zinc-air batteries where the cell is sealed until use: a tab is removed to admit air and activate the cell.