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Miller-Urey Apparatus
This apparatus simulated three important conditions on Earth:
The high amount of lightning Heat and gases released by volcanic activity Water vapor present in the atmosphere.
The first life forms on Earth were likely single-celled prokaryotic organisms. Prokaryotic organisms are single-celled organisms that do not have a nucleus.
o Their DNA or RNA is usually floating freely inside the cell.
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotes are organisms with much larger and more complex cells than prokaryotes. DNA is in a nucleus that is bounded by a nuclear membrane. Have membrane-bound organelles The largest eukaryotic cells are 0.1mm to 1.0mm in size. Why havent they evolved any larger?
5 1 1
Total surface area (height x width x number of sides x number of boxes) Total volume (height x width x length X number of boxes) Surface-to-volume ratio (surface area volume)
150
750
125
125
1.2
If the larger cell is instead broken down into 125 smaller cells, it will once again have enough surface area. This is why multicellular organisms exist!
Cell Organization
The eukaryotic cell can be divided into two major parts: the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus is a separate compartment that contains the DNA of the cell. The cytoplasm is the fluid portion of the cell outside the nucleus.
o Prokaryotic cells have cytoplasm as well, even though they do not have a nucleus.
Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles, although there are a few differences.
Villi
The Nucleus
The nucleus contains most of the cells genes and is usually the largest organelle. The nuclear envelope is a membrane that encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm.
In the same way that the boss gives the orders to control a factory, the nucleus is the control center of the cell. The nucleus contains nearly all the cells DNA and, with it, the coded instructions for making proteins and other important molecules.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a huge membrane that is connected to the nuclear membrane. There are two distinct regions of ER:
o Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes o Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not contain any ribosomes, so it is unable to synthesize proteins.
LE 6-16-1
Nucleus
Rough ER
LE 6-16-2
Nucleus
Rough ER
Transport vesicle
trans Golgi
LE 6-16-3
Nucleus
Rough ER
Transport vesicle
Vacuoles
Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that store many materials. Plant cells often have one large central vacuole. This fills with water, making the cell rigid.
o When they are empty and dry, plants wilt!
Lysosomes, formed by the Golgi, serve as the cells cleanup crew. A lysosome has a lower pH, and is full of enzymes that can digest proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids.
o Can also breakdown old organelles so they can be re-used.
Lysosomes
Perioxisomes are similar to lysosomes, but are formed by the endoplasmic reticulum.
o These break down hydrogen perioxide (H2O2), a dangerous by-product of fatty acid digestion.
H2O2 H2 + O2
Enzyme: Catalase
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that give the cell shape.
o Can also help transport materials across the cell.
Centrioles are part of the cytoskeleton that help move chromosomes during cell division.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are the power plants of the cell. They convert the chemical energy stored in food into smaller molecules for the cell to use. Mitochondria have two membranes, outer and inner. The inner membrane is folded up to increase the amount of surface area to do chemical reactions.
Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae
Chloroplasts
Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane is a selective barrier.
o Allows passage of oxygen, nutrients into the cell, and waste out of the cell.
The cell wall is made of cellulose and serves as support and protection for the cell. Animals do not have cell walls, but plants, fungi, and algae do. The cell wall is outside of the cell membrane.
Cell Wall
Plants: Plasmodesmata
The cell wall is so thick that oxygen, nutrients, water, and waste cannot travel easily through. Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell walls Through plasmodesmata, water and other small molecules can enter the cell.
Once the tight junctions are gone, water is able to seep into the small intestine, causing diarrhea.
LE 6-31
Tight junction
0.5 m
Gap junctions
Phospholipids
A phospholipid is similar to a lipid, but one of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphate (PO4). The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate head is hydrophilic.
WATER WATER
Hydrophobic tails
WATER WATER
This phospholipid bilayer creates the basic structure of all cell membranes.
As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a fluid state to a solid state Membranes must be fluid to work properly; they are usually about as fluid as vegetable oil.
LE 7-5b
Fluid
Viscous (Thick)
Membranes are fluid because they contain a high number of unsaturated fatty acids.
Membrane Proteins
Proteins determine most of the membranes specific functions Peripheral proteins are on the surface of the membrane, either outside or inside the cell. Integral proteins go all the way through the phospholipid bilayer and contact both sides.
Membrane Proteins
Six major functions of membrane proteins:
1. Transport substances across the cell membrane.
Membrane Carbohydrates
Cells can recognize each other by binding to carbohydrates on the plasma membrane. These carbohydrates vary among species, individuals, and even cell types in an individual.
o This is how the immune system recognizes self and foreign cells. o Example: Blood type (A, B, AB, O) is determined by markers on your red blood cell membranes.
Passive Transport
Diffusion is the movement of molecules areas
of greater concentration to areas of lower concentration.
LE 7-11a
Molecules of dye
WATER
Net diffusion
Net diffusion
Equilibrium
Molecules of solute gradually pass through the membrane, eventually reaching equilibrium.
LE 7-11b
Equilibrium Equilibrium
Water diffuses across a membrane from the region of lower solute concentration to the region of higher solute concentration
LE 7-12
H2 O
sugar molecules cannot pass through pores, but water molecules can
Osmosis
LE 7-13
Distilled water Animal cell H2O H2O
Isotonic solution
Saltwater
Lysed
Shriveled
Plant cell
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Turgid (normal)
Flaccid
Plasmolyzed
LE 7-13
Distilled water Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O
Isotonic solution
Salt water
Lysed
Normal
Shriveled
Plant cell
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Turgid (normal)
Flaccid
Plasmolyzed
LE 7-13
Distilled water Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O
Isotonic solution
Saltwater
Lysed
Normal
Shriveled
Plant cell
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Turgid (normal)
Flaccid
Plasmolyzed
LE 7-13
Distilled water Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O
Isotonic solution
Salt water
Lysed
Normal
Shriveled
Plant cell
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Turgid (normal)
Flaccid
Plasmolyzed
Animal cells cannot survive in a hypertonic or hypotonic environment because their cell membranes are too thin. Some organisms have adaptations to allow them to survive in these environments.
o Example: The protist Paramecium lives in a hypotonic environment. It has vacuole that can absorb excess water and pump it back out of the cell.
LE 7-14
Filling vacuole 50 m
Contracting vacuole
50 m
LE 7-13
Saltwater solution Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O
Isotonic solution
Distilled water
Lysed
Normal
Shriveled
Plant cell
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Turgid (normal)
Flaccid
Plasmolyzed
LE 7-13
Hypotonic solution Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O
Isotonic solution
Hypertonic solution
Lysed
Normal
Shriveled
Plant cell
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Turgid (normal)
Flaccid
Plasmolyzed
LE 7-13
Hypotonic solution Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O
Isotonic solution
Hypertonic solution
Lysed
Normal
Shriveled
Plant cell
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Turgid (normal)
Flaccid
Plasmolyzed
LE 7-13
Hypotonic solution Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O
Isotonic solution
Hypertonic solution
Lysed
Normal
Shriveled
Plant cell
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Turgid (normal)
Flaccid
Plasmolyzed
Facilitated Diffusion
In facilitated diffusion, transport proteins aid movement of molecules across the plasma membrane
o This increases the rate of transport. o This is considered passive transport because no energy is used.
Channel proteins, act like a tunnel that ions or other molecules can use to enter the cell.
o Example: Aquaporins facilitate the passage of water.
Transport Proteins
Carrier proteins, bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane
o A transport protein is specific for one substance only.
Active Transport
Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradient Active transport requires energy, usually in the form of ATP
o ATP is the smallest, most basic energycontaining molecule that cells use.
Exocytosis
In exocytosis, transport vesicles from the Golgi fuse with the cell membrane and release their contents to the outside.
Endocytosis
In endocytosis, the cell takes in large molecules by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane Endocytosis is a reversal of exocytosis.